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every corner of Europe, as well as in the Middle East, <st1:country-region
w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region>, the West Indies, and <st1:place
w:st="on">Latin America</st1:place>. In reality, however, there was only one
major war during this time, the war between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Britain</st1:country-region>
and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
All other battles were ancillary to this larger conflict, and were often at
least partially related to its antagonist&#8217; goals and strategies. <st1:country-region
w:st="on">France</st1:country-region> sought total domination of <st1:place
w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>. This goal was obstructed by British independence
and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#8217;s
efforts throughout the continent to thwart Napoleon; through treaties. <st1:country-region
w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> built
coalitions (not dissimilar in concept to today&#8217;s NATO) guaranteeing
British participation in all major European conflicts. These two antagonists
were poorly matched, insofar as they had very unequal strengths; <st1:country-region
w:st="on">France</st1:country-region> was predominant on land, <st1:country-region
w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> at sea.
The French knew that, short of defeating the British navy, their only hope of
victory was to close all the ports of <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>
to British ships. Accordingly, <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region>
set out to overcome <st1:country-region w:st="on">Britain</st1:country-region>
by extending its military domination from <st1:City w:st="on">Moscow</st1:City>
t <st1:City w:st="on">Lisbon</st1:City>, from <st1:place w:st="on">Jutland</st1:place>
to Caldaria. All of this entailed tremendous risk, because <st1:country-region
w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region> did not
have the military resources to control this much territory and still protect
itself and maintain order at home. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>French strategists calculated that a navy of 150 ships
would provide the force necessary to defeat the British navy. Such a force
would give <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region> a
three-to-two advantage over <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
This advantage was deemed necessary because of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Britain</st1:country-region>&#8217;s
superior sea skills and technology because of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Britain</st1:country-region>&#8217;s
superior sea skills and technology, and also because <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place
 w:st="on">Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> would be fighting a
defensive war, allowing it to win with fewer forces. Napoleon never lost
substantial impediment to his control of <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>.
As his force neared that goal, Napoleon grew increasingly impatient and began
planning an immediate attack. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>17 Evolution of sleep </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Sleep is very ancient. In the electroencephalographic sense
we share it with all the primates and almost all the other mammals and birds:
it may extend back as far as the reptiles. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>There is some evidence that the two types of sleep,
dreaming and dreamless, depend on the life-style of the animal, and that
predators are statistically much more likely to dream than prey, which are in
turn much more likely to experience dreamless sleep. In dream sleep, the animal
is powerfully immobilized and remarkably unresponsive to external stimuli.
Dreamless sleep is much shallower, and we have all witnessed cats or dogs
cocking their ears to a sound when apparently fast asleep. The fact that deep
dream sleep is rare among pray today seems clearly to be a product of natural
selection, and it makes sense that today, when sleep is highly evolved, the
stupid animals are less frequently immobilized by deep sleep than the smart
ones. But why should they sleep deeply at all? Why should a state of such deep
immobilization ever have evolved? </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Perhaps one useful hint about the original function of
sleep is to be found in the fact that dolphins and whales and aquatic mammals
in genera seem to sleep very little. There is, by and large, no place to hide
in the ocean. Could it be that, rather than increasing an animal&#8217;s
vulnerability, the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:PlaceType w:st="on">University</st1:PlaceType>
 of <st1:PlaceName w:st="on">Florida</st1:PlaceName></st1:place> and Ray
Middies of London University have suggested this to be the case. It is
conceivable that animals who are too stupid to be quite on their own initiative
are, during periods of high risk, immobilized by the implacable arm of sleep.
The point seems particularly clear for the young of predatory animals. This is
an interesting notion and probably at least partly true. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>18 Modern American Universities </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Before the <st1:chmetcnv UnitName="&#8217;"
SourceValue="1850" HasSpace="False" Negative="False" NumberType="1" TCSC="0"
w:st="on">1850&#8217;</st1:chmetcnv>s, the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place
 w:st="on">United States</st1:place></st1:country-region> had a number of small
colleges, most of them dating from colonial days. They were small, church
connected institutions whose primary concern was to shape the moral character
of their students. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Throughout <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>,
institutions of higher learning had developed, bearing the ancient name of
university. In German university was concerned primarily with creating and
spreading knowledge, not morals. Between mid-century and the end of the <st1:chmetcnv
UnitName="&#8217;" SourceValue="1800" HasSpace="False" Negative="False"
NumberType="1" TCSC="0" w:st="on">1800&#8217;</st1:chmetcnv>s, more than nine
thousand young Americans, dissatisfied with their training at home, went to <st1:country-region
w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Germany</st1:place></st1:country-region> for
advanced study. Some of them return to become presidents of venerable
colleges-----Harvard, Yale, <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Columbia</st1:place></st1:City>---and
transform them into modern universities. The new presidents broke all ties with
the churches and brought in a new kind of faculty. Professors were hired for
their knowledge of a subject, not because they were of the proper faith and had
a strong arm for disciplining students. The new principle was that a university
was to create knowledge as well as pass it on, and this called for a faculty
composed of teacher-scholars. Drilling and learning by rote were replaced by
the German method of lecturing, in which the professor&#8217;s own research was
presented in class. Graduate training leading to the Ph.D., an ancient German
degree signifying the highest level of advanced scholarly attainment, was
introduced. With the establishment of the seminar system, graduate student
learned to question, analyze, and conduct their own research. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>At the same time, the new university greatly expanded in
size and course offerings, breaking completely out of the old, constricted
curriculum of mathematics, classics, rhetoric, and music. The president of
Harvard pioneered the elective system, by which students were able to choose
their own course of study. The notion of major fields of study emerged. The new
goal was to make the university relevant to the real pursuits of the world.
Paying close heed to the practical needs of society, the new universities
trained men and women to work at its tasks, with engineering students being the
most characteristic of the new regime. Students were also trained as
economists, architects, agriculturalists, social welfare workers, and teachers.
</span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>19 children&#8217;s numerical skills </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>People appear to born to compute. The numerical skills of
children develop so early and so inexorably that it is easy to imagine an
internal clock of mathematical maturity guiding their growth. Not long after
learning to walk and talk, they can set the table with impress accuracy---one
knife, one spoon, one fork, for each of the five chairs. <br>
Soon they are capable of nothing that they have placed five knives, spoons and
forks on the table and, a bit later, that this amounts to fifteen pieces of
silverware. Having thus mastered addition, they move on to subtraction. It
seems almost reasonable to expect that if a child were secluded on a desert
island at birth and retrieved seven years later, he or she could enter a second
enter a second-grade mathematics class without any serious problems of
intellectual adjustment. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Of course, the truth is not so simple. This century, the
work of cognitive psychologists has illuminated the subtle forms of daily
learning on which intellectual progress depends. Children were observed as they
slowly grasped-----or, as the case might be, bumped into----- concepts that
adults take for quantity is unchanged as water pours from a short glass into a
tall thin one. Psychologists have since demonstrated that young children, asked
to count the pencils in a pile, readily report the number of blue or red
pencils, but must be coaxed into finding the total. Such studies have suggested
that the rudiments of mathematics are mastered gradually, and with effort. They
have also suggested that the very concept of abstract numbers------the idea of
a oneness, a twoness, a threeness that applies to any class of objects and is a
prerequisite for doing anything more mathematically demanding than setting a
table-----is itself far from innate </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>20 The Historical Significance of American Revolution </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>The ways of history are so intricate and the motivations of
human actions so complex that it is always hazardous to attempt to represent
events covering a number of years, a multiplicity of persons, and distant
localities as the expression of one intellectual or social movement; yet the
historical process which culminated in the ascent of Thomas Jefferson to the
presidency can be regarded as the outstanding example not only of the birth of
a new way of life but of nationalism as a new way of life. The American
Revolution represents the link between the seventeenth century, in which modern
<st1:country-region w:st="on">England</st1:country-region> became conscious of
itself, and the awakening of modern <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place> at
the end of the eighteenth century. It may seem strange that the march of
history should have had to cross the <st1:place w:st="on">Atlantic Ocean</st1:place>,
but only in the North American colonies could a struggle for civic liberty lead
also to the foundation of a new nation. Here, in the popular rising against a
&#8220;tyrannical&#8221; government, the fruits were more than the securing of
a freer constitution. They included the growth of a nation born in liberty by
the will of the people, not from the roots of common descent, a geographic
entity, or the ambitions of king or dynasty. With the American nation, for the
first time, a nation was born, not in the dim past of history but before the
eyes of the whole world. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>21 The Origin of Sports </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>When did sport begin? If sport is, in essence, play, the
claim might be made that sport is much older than humankind, for , as we all
have observed, the beasts play. Dogs and cats wrestle and play ball games.
Fishes and birds dance. The apes have simple, pleasurable games. Frolicking
infants, school children playing tag, and adult arm wrestlers are demonstrating
strong, transgenerational and transspecies bonds with the universe of animals -
past, present, and future. Young animals, particularly, tumble, chase, run
wrestle, mock, imitate, and laugh (or so it seems) to the point of delighted
exhaustion. Their play, and ours, appears to serve no other purpose than to
give pleasure to the players, and apparently, to remove us temporarily from the
anguish of life in earnest. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Some philosophers have claimed that our playfulness is the
most noble part of our basic nature. In their generous conceptions, play
harmlessly and experimentally permits us to put our creative forces, fantasy,
and imagination into action. Play is release from the tedious battles against
scarcity and decline which are the incessant, and inevitable, tragedies of life.
This is a grand conception that excites and provokes. The holders of this view
claim that the origins of our highest accomplishments ---- liturgy, literature,
and law ---- can be traced to a play impulse which, paradoxically, we see most
purely enjoyed by young beasts and children. Our sports, in this rather happy,
nonfatalistic view of human nature, are more splendid creations of the
nondatable, transspecies play impulse. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>22. Collectibles </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Collectibles have been a part of almost every culture since
ancient times. Whereas some objects have been collected for their usefulness,
others have been selected for their aesthetic beauty alone. In the United
States, the kinds of collectibles currently popular range from traditional
objects such as stamps, coins, rare books, and art to more recent items of
interest like dolls, bottles, baseball cards, and comic books. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Interest in collectibles has increased enormously during
the past decade, in part because some collectibles have demonstrated their
value as investments. Especially during cycles of high inflation, investors try
to purchase tangibles that will at least retain their current market values. In
general, the most traditional collectibles will be sought because they have
preserved their value over the years, there is an organized auction market for
them, and they are most easily sold in the event that cash is needed. Some
examples of the most stable collectibles are old masters, Chinese ceramics,