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<p><span lang=EN-US>10 Types of Speech </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Standard usage includes those words and expressions
understood, used, and accepted by a majority of the speakers of a language in
any situation regardless of the level of formality. As such, these words and
expressions are well defined and listed in standard dictionaries.
Colloquialisms, on the other hand, are familiar words and idioms that are understood
by almost all speakers of a language and used in informal speech or writing,
but not considered appropriate for more formal situations. Almost all idiomatic
expressions are colloquial language. Slang, however, refers to words and
expressions understood by a large number of speakers but not accepted as good,
formal usage by the majority. Colloquial expressions and even slang may be
found in standard dictionaries but will be so identified. Both colloquial usage
and slang are more common in speech than in writing. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Colloquial speech often passes into standard speech. Some
slang also passes into standard speech, but other slang expressions enjoy
momentary popularity followed by obscurity. In some cases, the majority never
accepts certain slang phrases but nevertheless retains them in their collective
memories. Every generation seems to require its own set of words to describe
familiar objects and events. It has been pointed out by a number of linguists
that three cultural conditions are necessary for the creation of a large body
of slang expressions. First, the introduction and acceptance of new objects and
situations in the society; second, a diverse population with a large number of
subgroups; third, association among the subgroups and the majority population. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Finally, it is worth noting that the terms
&quot;standard&quot; &quot;colloquial&quot; and &quot;slang&quot; exist only as
abstract labels for scholars who study language. Only a tiny number of the
speakers of any language will be aware that they are using colloquial or slang
expressions. Most speakers of English will, during appropriate situations,
select and use all three types of expressions. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>11 Archaeology </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Archaeology is a source of history, not just a bumble
auxiliary discipline. Archaeological data are historical documents in their own
right, not mere illustrations to written texts, Just as much as any other
historian, an archaeologist studies and tries to reconstitute the process that
has created the human world in which we live - and us ourselves in so far as we
are each creatures of our age and social environment. Archaeological data are
all changes in the material world resulting from human action or, more
succinctly, the fossilized results of human behavior. The sum total of these
constitutes what may be called the archaeological record. This record exhibits
certain peculiarities and deficiencies the consequences of which produce a
rather superficial contrast between archaeological history and the more
familiar kind based upon written records. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Not all human behavior fossilizes. The words I utter and
you hear as vibrations in the air are certainly human changes in the material
world and may be of great historical significance. Yet they leave no sort of
trace in the archaeological records unless they are captured by a Dictaphone or
written down by a clerk. The movement of troops on the battlefield may
&quot;change the course of history,&quot; but this is equally ephemeral from
the archaeologist&#8217;s standpoint. What are perhaps worse, most organic
materials are perishable. Everything made of wood, hide, wool, linen, grass,
hair, and similar materials will decay and vanish in dust in a few years or
centuries, save under very exceptional conditions. In a relatively brief period
the archaeological record is reduce to mere scraps of stone, bone, glass,
metal, and earthenware. Still modern archaeology, by applying appropriate
techniques and comparative methods, aided by a few lucky finds from peat-bogs,
deserts, and frozen soils, is able to fill up a good deal of the gap. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>12 Museums </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>From <st1:City w:st="on">Boston</st1:City> to <st1:City
w:st="on">Los Angeles</st1:City>, from <st1:City w:st="on">New York City</st1:City>
to <st1:City w:st="on">Chicago</st1:City> to <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place
 w:st="on">Dallas</st1:place></st1:City>, museums are either planning,
building, or wrapping up wholesale expansion programs. These programs already
have radically altered facades and floor plans or are expected to do so in the
not-too-distant future. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>In <st1:City w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New York City</st1:place></st1:City>
alone, six major institutions have spread up and out into the air space and
neighborhoods around them or are preparing to do so. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>The reasons for this confluence of activity are complex,
but one factor is a consideration everywhere - space. With collections
expanding, with the needs and functions of museums changing, empty space has
become a very precious commodity. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Probably nowhere in the country is this more true than at
the Philadelphia Museum of Art, which has needed additional space for decades
and which received its last significant facelift ten years ago. Because of the
space crunch, the Art Museum has become increasingly cautious in considering
acquisitions and donations of art, in some cases passing up opportunities to
strengthen its collections. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Deaccessing - or selling off - works of art has taken on
new importance because of the museum&#8217;s space problems. And increasingly,
curators have been forced to juggle gallery space, rotating one masterpiece
into public view while another is sent to storage. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Despite the clear need for additional gallery and storage
space, however,&quot; the museum has no plan, no plan to break out of its
envelope in the next fifteen years,&quot; according to Philadelphia Museum of
Art&#8217;s president. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>13 Skyscrapers and Environment </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>In the late <st1:chmetcnv UnitName="&#8217;"
SourceValue="1960" HasSpace="False" Negative="False" NumberType="1" TCSC="0"
w:st="on">1960&#8217;</st1:chmetcnv>s, many people in <st1:place w:st="on">North
 America</st1:place> turned their attention to environmental problems, and new
steel-and-glass skyscrapers were widely criticized. Ecologists pointed out that
a cluster of tall buildings in a city often overburdens public transportation
and parking lot capacities. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Skyscrapers are also lavish consumers, and wasters, of
electric power. In one recent year, the addition of 17 million square feet of
skyscraper office space in <st1:City w:st="on">New York City</st1:City> raised
the peak daily demand for electricity by 120, 000 kilowatts-enough to supply
the entire city of <st1:City w:st="on">Albany</st1:City>, <st1:State w:st="on"><st1:place
 w:st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:State>, for a day. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Glass-walled skyscrapers can be especially wasteful. The
heat loss (or gain)through a wall of half-inch plate glass is more than ten
times that through a typical masonry wall filled with insulation board. To
lessen the strain on heating and air-conditioning equipment, builders of
skyscrapers have begun to use double-glazed panels of glass, and reflective
glasses coated with silver or gold mirror films that reduce glare as well as
heat gain. However, mirror-walled skyscrapers raise the temperature of the
surrounding air and affect neighboring buildings. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Skyscrapers put a severe strain on a city&#8217;s sanitation
facilities, too. If fully occupied, the two World Trade Center towers in New
York City would alone generate 2.25 million gallons of raw sewage each year-as
much as a city the size of Stanford, Connecticut , which has a population of
more than 109, 000. </span></p>

<p><st1:chmetcnv UnitName="a" SourceValue="14" HasSpace="True" Negative="False"
NumberType="1" TCSC="0" w:st="on"><span lang=EN-US>14 A</span></st1:chmetcnv><span
lang=EN-US> Rare Fossil Record </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>The preservation of embryos and juveniles is a rate
occurrence in the fossil record. The tiny, delicate skeletons are usually
scattered by scavengers or destroyed by weathering before they can be
fossilized. Ichthyosaurs had a higher chance of being preserved than did
terrestrial creatures because, as marine animals, they tended to live in
environments less subject to erosion. Still, their fossilization required a
suite of factors: a slow rate of decay of soft tissues, little scavenging by
other animals, a lack of swift currents and waves to jumble and carry away
small bones, and fairly rapid burial. Given these factors, some areas have
become a treasury of well-preserved ichthyosaur fossils. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>The deposits at <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:City w:st="on">Holzmaden</st1:City>,
 <st1:country-region w:st="on">Germany</st1:country-region></st1:place>,
present an interesting case for analysis. The ichthyosaur remains are found in
black, bituminous marine shales deposited about 190 million years ago. Over the
years, thousands of specimens of marine reptiles, fish and invertebrates have
been recovered from these rocks. The quality of preservation is outstanding,
but what is even more impressive is the number of ichthyosaur fossils
containing preserved embryos. Ichthyosaurs with embryos have been reported from
6 different levels of the shale in a small area around Holzmaden, suggesting
that a specific site was used by large numbers of ichthyosaurs repeatedly over
time. The embryos are quite advanced in their physical development; their
paddles, for example, are already well formed. One specimen is even preserved
in the birth canal. In addition, the shale contains the remains of many
newborns that are between 20 and 30 inches long. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Why are there so many pregnant females and young at
Holzmaden when they are so rare elsewhere? The quality of preservation is almost
unmatched and quarry operations have been carried out carefully with an
awareness of the value of the fossils. But these factors do not account for the
interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of pregnant
ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of giving birth. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>15 The <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:PlaceName w:st="on">Nobel</st1:PlaceName>
 <st1:PlaceType w:st="on">Academy</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>For the last 82years, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sweden</st1:country-region>&#8217;s
<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:PlaceName w:st="on">Nobel</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType
 w:st="on">Academy</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> has decided who will receive the
Nobel Prize in Literature, thereby determining who will be elevated from the
great and the near great to the immortal. But today the Academy is coming under
heavy criticism both from the without and from within. Critics contend that the
selection of the winners often has less to do with true writing ability than
with the peculiar internal politics of the Academy and of <st1:country-region
w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sweden</st1:place></st1:country-region> itself.
According to Ingmar Bjorksten, the cultural editor for one of the
country&#8217;s two major newspapers, the prize continues to represent
&quot;what people call a very Swedish exercise: reflecting Swedish
tastes.&quot; </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>The Academy has defended itself against such charges of
provincialism in its selection by asserting that its physical distance from the
great literary capitals of the world actually serves to protect the Academy
from outside influences. This may well be true, but critics respond that this
very distance may also be responsible for the Academy&#8217;s inability to
perceive accurately authentic trends in the literary world. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Regardless of concerns over the selection process, however,
it seems that the prize will continue to survive both as an indicator of the
literature that we most highly praise, and as an elusive goal that writers
seek. If for no other reason, the prize will continue to be desirable for the
financial rewards that accompany it; not only is the cash prize itself considerable,
but it also dramatically increases sales of an author&#8217;s books. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>16. the war between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Britain</st1:country-region>
and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region>
</span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>In the late eighteenth century, battles raged in almost
every corner of Europe, as well as in the Middle East, <st1:country-region
w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region>, the West Indies, and <st1:place
w:st="on">Latin America</st1:place>. In reality, however, there was only one
major war during this time, the war between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Britain</st1:country-region>
and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
All other battles were ancillary to this larger conflict, and were often at
least partially related to its antagonist&#8217; goals and strategies. <st1:country-region
w:st="on">France</st1:country-region> sought total domination of <st1:place
w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>. This goal was obstructed by British independence