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For a complete understanding of a price in any particular transaction, much
more than the amount of money involved must be known. Both the buyer and the
seller should be familiar with not only the money amount, but with the amount
and quality of the product or service to be exchanged, the time and place at
which the exchange will take place and payment will be made, the form of money
to be used, the credit terms and discounts that apply to the transaction, guarantees
on the product or service, delivery terms, return privileges, and other
factors. In other words, both buyer and seller should be fully aware of all the
factors that comprise the total “package” being exchanged for the
asked-for amount of money in order that they may evaluate a given price. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>04 Electricity </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>The modern age is an age of electricity. People are so used
to electric lights, radio, televisions, and telephones that it is hard to
imagine what life would be like without them. When there is a power failure,
people grope about in flickering candlelight, cars hesitate in the streets
because there are no traffic lights to guide them, and food spoils in silent
refrigerators. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Yet, people began to understand how electricity works only
a little more than two centuries ago. Nature has apparently been experimenting
in this field for million of years. Scientists are discovering more and more
that the living world may hold many interesting secrets of electricity that
could benefit humanity. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>All living cell send out tiny pulses of electricity. As the
heart beats, it sends out pulses of record; they form an electrocardiogram,
which a doctor can study to determine how well the heart is working. The brain,
too, sends out brain waves of electricity, which can be recorded in an
electroencephalogram. The electric currents generated by most living cells are
extremely small - often so small that sensitive instruments are needed to
record them. But in some animals, certain muscle cells have become so specialized
as electrical generators that they do not work as muscle cells at all. When
large numbers of these cell are linked together, the effects can be
astonishing. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>The electric eel is an amazing storage battery. It can seed
a jolt of as much as eight hundred volts of electricity through the water in
which it live. (An electric house current is only one hundred twenty volts.) As
many as four-fifths of all the cells in the electric eel&#8217;s body are
specialized for generating electricity, and the strength of the shock it can
deliver corresponds roughly to length of its body. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>05 The Beginning of Drama </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>There are many theories about the beginning of drama in
ancient <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
The on most widely accepted today is based on the assumption that drama evolved
from ritual. The argument for this view goes as follows. In the beginning,
human beings viewed the natural forces of the world-even the seasonal
changes-as unpredictable, and they sought through various means to control
these unknown and feared powers. Those measures which appeared to bring the
desired results were then retained and repeated until they hardened into fixed
rituals. Eventually stories arose which explained or veiled the mysteries of
the rites. As time passed some rituals were abandoned, but the stories, later
called myths, persisted and provided material for art and drama. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Those who believe that drama evolved out of ritual also
argue that those rites contained the seed of theater because music, dance,
masks, and costumes were almost always used, furthermore, a suitable site had
to be provided for performances and when the entire community did not
participate, a clear division was usually made between the &quot;acting
area&quot; and the &quot;auditorium.&quot; In addition, there were performers,
and, since considerable importance was attached to avoiding mistakes in the
enactment of rites, religious leaders usually assumed that task. Wearing masks
and costumes, they often impersonated other people, animals, or supernatural
beings, and mimed the desired effect-success in hunt or battle, the coming
rain, the revival of the Sun-as an actor might. Eventually such dramatic
representations were separated from religious activities. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Another theory traces the theater&#8217;s origin from the
human interest in storytelling. According to this vies tales (about the hunt,
war, or other feats) are gradually elaborated, at first through the use of
impersonation, action, and dialogue by a narrator and then through the
assumption of each of the roles by a different person. A closely related theory
traces theater to those dances that are primarily rhythmical and gymnastic or
that are imitations of animal movements and sounds. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>06 Televisions </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Television-----the most pervasive and persuasive of modern
technologies, marked by rapid change and growth-is moving into a new era, an
era of extraordinary sophistication and versatility, which promises to reshape
our lives and our world. It is an electronic revolution of sorts, made possible
by the marriage of television and computer technologies. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>The word &quot;television&quot;, derived from its Greek
(tele: distant) and Latin (visio: sight) roots, can literally be interpreted as
sight from a distance. Very simply put, it works in this way: through a
sophisticated system of electronics, television provides the capability of
converting an image (focused on a special photoconductive plate within a
camera) into electronic impulses, which can be sent through a wire or cable.
These impulses, when fed into a receiver (television set), can then be
electronically reconstituted into that same image. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Television is more than just an electronic system, however.
It is a means of expression, as well as a vehicle for communication, and as
such becomes a powerful tool for reaching other human beings. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>The field of television can be divided into two categories
determined by its means of transmission. First, there is broadcast television,
which reaches the masses through broad-based airwave transmission of television
signals. Second, there is nonbroadcast television, which provides for the needs
of individuals or specific interest groups through controlled transmission
techniques. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Traditionally, television has been a medium of the masses.
We are most familiar with broadcast television because it has been with us for
about thirty-seven years in a form similar to what exists today. During those
years, it has been controlled, for the most part, by the broadcast networks,
ABC, NBC, and CBS, who have been the major purveyors of news, information, and
entertainment. These giants of broadcasting have actually shaped not only
television but our perception of it as well. We have come to look upon the
picture tube as a source of entertainment, placing our role in this dynamic
medium as the passive viewer. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>07 Andrew Carnegie </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Andrew Carnegie, known as the King of Steel, built the
steel industry in the <st1:country-region w:st="on">United States</st1:country-region>,
and, in the process, became one of the wealthiest men in <st1:country-region
w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">America</st1:place></st1:country-region>. His
success resulted in part from his ability to sell the product and in part from
his policy of expanding during periods of economic decline, when most of his
competitors were reducing their investments. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Carnegie believed that individuals should progress through
hard work, but he also felt strongly that the wealthy should use their fortunes
for the benefit of society. He opposed charity, preferring instead to provide
educational opportunities that would allow others to help themselves. &quot;He
who dies rich, dies disgraced,&quot; he often said. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Among his more noteworthy contributions to society are
those that bear his name, including the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, which
has a library, a museum of fine arts, and a museum of national history. He also
founded a school of technology that is now part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:PlaceName
 w:st="on">Carnegie-Mellon</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st="on">University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>.
Other philanthropic gifts are the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace to
promote understanding between nations, the <br>
Carnegie Institute of Washington to fund scientific research, and Carnegie Hall
to provide a center for the arts. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Few Americans have been left untouched by Andrew
Carnegie&#8217;s generosity. His contributions of more than five million
dollars established 2,500 libraries in small communities throughout the country
and formed the nucleus of the public library system that we all enjoy today. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>08 American Revolution </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>The American Revolution was not a sudden and violent
overturning of the political and social framework, such as later occurred in <st1:country-region
w:st="on">France</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place
 w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, when both were already
independent nations. Significant changes were ushered in, but they were not
breathtaking. What happened was accelerated evolution rather than outright
revolution. During the conflict itself people went on working and praying,
marrying and playing. Most of them were not seriously disturbed by the actual
fighting, and many of the more isolated communities scarcely knew that a war
was on. </span></p>

<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span lang=EN-US>America</span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span
lang=EN-US>&#8217;s War of Independence heralded the birth of three modern
nations. One was <st1:country-region w:st="on">Canada</st1:country-region>,
which received its first large influx of English-speaking population from the
thousands of loyalists who fled there from the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place
 w:st="on">United States</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Another was <st1:country-region
w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>, which became a penal colony now that <st1:country-region
w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">America</st1:place></st1:country-region> was no
longer available for prisoners and debtors. The third newcomer-the United
States-based itself squarely on republican principles. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>Yet even the political overturn was not so revolutionary as
one might suppose. In some states, notably <st1:State w:st="on">Connecticut</st1:State>
and <st1:State w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Rhode Island</st1:place></st1:State>,
the war largely ratified a colonial self-rule already existing. British
officials, everywhere ousted, were replaced by a home-grown governing class,
which promptly sought a local substitute for king and Parliament. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>09 Suburbanization </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>If by &quot;suburb&quot; is meant an urban margin that
grows more rapidly than its already developed interior, the process of
suburbanization began during the emergence of the industrial city in the second
quarter of the nineteenth century. Before that period the city was a small
highly compact cluster in which people moved about on foot and goods were
conveyed by horse and cart. But the early factories built in the <st1:chmetcnv
UnitName="&#8217;" SourceValue="1840" HasSpace="False" Negative="False"
NumberType="1" TCSC="0" w:st="on">1840&#8217;</st1:chmetcnv>s were located
along waterways and near railheads at the edges of cities, and housing was
needed for the thousands of people drawn by the prospect of employment. In
time, the factories were surrounded by proliferating mill towns of apartments
and row houses that abutted the older, main cities. As a defense against this
encroachment and to enlarge their tax bases, the cities appropriated their
industrial neighbors. In 1854, for example, the city of <st1:City w:st="on">Philadelphia</st1:City>
annexed most of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:PlaceName w:st="on">Philadelphia</st1:PlaceName>
 <st1:PlaceType w:st="on">County</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>. Similar municipal
maneuvers took place in <st1:City w:st="on">Chicago</st1:City> and in <st1:State
w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:State>. Indeed, most
great cities of the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">United
  States</st1:place></st1:country-region> achieved such status only by
incorporating the communities along their borders. </span></p>

<p><span lang=EN-US>With the acceleration of industrial growth came acute urban
crowding and accompanying social stress-conditions that began to approach
disastrous proportions when, in 1888, the first commercially successful
electric traction line was developed. Within a few years the horse-drawn
trolleys were retired and electric streetcar networks crisscrossed and
connected every major urban area, fostering a wave of suburbanization that
transformed the compact industrial city into a dispersed metropolis. This first
phase of mass-scale suburbanization was reinforced by the simultaneous
emergence of the urban Middle Class, whose desires for homeownership in
neighborhoods far from the aging inner city were satisfied by the developers of
single-family housing tracts. </span></p>