md.texi

理解和实践操作系统的一本好书

@item @var{other-letters}
Other letters can be defined in machine-dependent fashion to stand for
particular classes of registers or other arbitrary operand types.
@samp{d}, @samp{a} and @samp{f} are defined on the 68000/68020 to stand
for data, address and floating point registers.
@end table

@ifset INTERNALS
In order to have valid assembler code, each operand must satisfy
its constraint.  But a failure to do so does not prevent the pattern
from applying to an insn.  Instead, it directs the compiler to modify
the code so that the constraint will be satisfied.  Usually this is
done by copying an operand into a register.

Contrast, therefore, the two instruction patterns that follow:

@smallexample
(define_insn ""
  [(set (match_operand:SI 0 "general_operand" "=r")
        (plus:SI (match_dup 0)
                 (match_operand:SI 1 "general_operand" "r")))]
  ""
  "@dots{}")
@end smallexample

@noindent
which has two operands, one of which must appear in two places, and

@smallexample
(define_insn ""
  [(set (match_operand:SI 0 "general_operand" "=r")
        (plus:SI (match_operand:SI 1 "general_operand" "0")
                 (match_operand:SI 2 "general_operand" "r")))]
  ""
  "@dots{}")
@end smallexample

@noindent
which has three operands, two of which are required by a constraint to be
identical.  If we are considering an insn of the form

@smallexample
(insn @var{n} @var{prev} @var{next}
  (set (reg:SI 3)
       (plus:SI (reg:SI 6) (reg:SI 109)))
  @dots{})
@end smallexample

@noindent
the first pattern would not apply at all, because this insn does not
contain two identical subexpressions in the right place.  The pattern would
say, ``That does not look like an add instruction; try other patterns''.
The second pattern would say, ``Yes, that's an add instruction, but there
is something wrong with it''.  It would direct the reload pass of the
compiler to generate additional insns to make the constraint true.  The
results might look like this:

@smallexample
(insn @var{n2} @var{prev} @var{n}
  (set (reg:SI 3) (reg:SI 6))
  @dots{})

(insn @var{n} @var{n2} @var{next}
  (set (reg:SI 3)
       (plus:SI (reg:SI 3) (reg:SI 109)))
  @dots{})
@end smallexample

It is up to you to make sure that each operand, in each pattern, has
constraints that can handle any RTL expression that could be present for
that operand.  (When multiple alternatives are in use, each pattern must,
for each possible combination of operand expressions, have at least one
alternative which can handle that combination of operands.)  The
constraints don't need to @emph{allow} any possible operand---when this is
the case, they do not constrain---but they must at least point the way to
reloading any possible operand so that it will fit.

@itemize @bullet
@item
If the constraint accepts whatever operands the predicate permits,
there is no problem: reloading is never necessary for this operand.

For example, an operand whose constraints permit everything except
registers is safe provided its predicate rejects registers.

An operand whose predicate accepts only constant values is safe
provided its constraints include the letter @samp{i}.  If any possible
constant value is accepted, then nothing less than @samp{i} will do;
if the predicate is more selective, then the constraints may also be
more selective.

@item
Any operand expression can be reloaded by copying it into a register.
So if an operand's constraints allow some kind of register, it is
certain to be safe.  It need not permit all classes of registers; the
compiler knows how to copy a register into another register of the
proper class in order to make an instruction valid.

@cindex nonoffsettable memory reference
@cindex memory reference, nonoffsettable
@item
A nonoffsettable memory reference can be reloaded by copying the
address into a register.  So if the constraint uses the letter
@samp{o}, all memory references are taken care of.

@item
A constant operand can be reloaded by allocating space in memory to
hold it as preinitialized data.  Then the memory reference can be used
in place of the constant.  So if the constraint uses the letters
@samp{o} or @samp{m}, constant operands are not a problem.

@item
If the constraint permits a constant and a pseudo register used in an insn
was not allocated to a hard register and is equivalent to a constant,
the register will be replaced with the constant.  If the predicate does
not permit a constant and the insn is re-recognized for some reason, the
compiler will crash.  Thus the predicate must always recognize any
objects allowed by the constraint.
@end itemize

If the operand's predicate can recognize registers, but the constraint does
not permit them, it can make the compiler crash.  When this operand happens
to be a register, the reload pass will be stymied, because it does not know
how to copy a register temporarily into memory.

If the predicate accepts a unary operator, the constraint applies to the
operand.  For example, the MIPS processor at ISA level 3 supports an
instruction which adds two registers in @code{SImode} to produce a
@code{DImode} result, but only if the registers are correctly sign
extended.  This predicate for the input operands accepts a
@code{sign_extend} of an @code{SImode} register.  Write the constraint
to indicate the type of register that is required for the operand of the
@code{sign_extend}.
@end ifset

@node Multi-Alternative
@subsection Multiple Alternative Constraints
@cindex multiple alternative constraints

Sometimes a single instruction has multiple alternative sets of possible
operands.  For example, on the 68000, a logical-or instruction can combine
register or an immediate value into memory, or it can combine any kind of
operand into a register; but it cannot combine one memory location into
another.

These constraints are represented as multiple alternatives.  An alternative
can be described by a series of letters for each operand.  The overall
constraint for an operand is made from the letters for this operand
from the first alternative, a comma, the letters for this operand from
the second alternative, a comma, and so on until the last alternative.
@ifset INTERNALS
Here is how it is done for fullword logical-or on the 68000:

@smallexample
(define_insn "iorsi3"
  [(set (match_operand:SI 0 "general_operand" "=m,d")
        (ior:SI (match_operand:SI 1 "general_operand" "%0,0")
                (match_operand:SI 2 "general_operand" "dKs,dmKs")))]
  @dots{})
@end smallexample

The first alternative has @samp{m} (memory) for operand 0, @samp{0} for
operand 1 (meaning it must match operand 0), and @samp{dKs} for operand
2.  The second alternative has @samp{d} (data register) for operand 0,
@samp{0} for operand 1, and @samp{dmKs} for operand 2.  The @samp{=} and
@samp{%} in the constraints apply to all the alternatives; their
meaning is explained in the next section (@pxref{Class Preferences}).
@end ifset

@c FIXME Is this ? and ! stuff of use in asm()?  If not, hide unless INTERNAL
If all the operands fit any one alternative, the instruction is valid.
Otherwise, for each alternative, the compiler counts how many instructions
must be added to copy the operands so that that alternative applies.
The alternative requiring the least copying is chosen.  If two alternatives
need the same amount of copying, the one that comes first is chosen.
These choices can be altered with the @samp{?} and @samp{!} characters:

@table @code
@cindex @samp{?} in constraint
@cindex question mark
@item ?
Disparage slightly the alternative that the @samp{?} appears in,
as a choice when no alternative applies exactly.  The compiler regards
this alternative as one unit more costly for each @samp{?} that appears
in it.

@cindex @samp{!} in constraint
@cindex exclamation point
@item !
Disparage severely the alternative that the @samp{!} appears in.
This alternative can still be used if it fits without reloading,
but if reloading is needed, some other alternative will be used.
@end table

@ifset INTERNALS
When an insn pattern has multiple alternatives in its constraints, often
the appearance of the assembler code is determined mostly by which
alternative was matched.  When this is so, the C code for writing the
assembler code can use the variable @code{which_alternative}, which is
the ordinal number of the alternative that was actually satisfied (0 for
the first, 1 for the second alternative, etc.).  @xref{Output Statement}.
@end ifset

@ifset INTERNALS
@node Class Preferences
@subsection Register Class Preferences
@cindex class preference constraints
@cindex register class preference constraints

@cindex voting between constraint alternatives
The operand constraints have another function: they enable the compiler
to decide which kind of hardware register a pseudo register is best
allocated to.  The compiler examines the constraints that apply to the
insns that use the pseudo register, looking for the machine-dependent
letters such as @samp{d} and @samp{a} that specify classes of registers.
The pseudo register is put in whichever class gets the most ``votes''.
The constraint letters @samp{g} and @samp{r} also vote: they vote in
favor of a general register.  The machine description says which registers
are considered general.

Of course, on some machines all registers are equivalent, and no register
classes are defined.  Then none of this complexity is relevant.
@end ifset

@node Modifiers
@subsection Constraint Modifier Characters
@cindex modifiers in constraints
@cindex constraint modifier characters

@c prevent bad page break with this line
Here are constraint modifier characters.

@table @samp
@cindex @samp{=} in constraint
@item =
Means that this operand is write-only for this instruction: the previous
value is discarded and replaced by output data.

@cindex @samp{+} in constraint
@item +
Means that this operand is both read and written by the instruction.

When the compiler fixes up the operands to satisfy the constraints,
it needs to know which operands are inputs to the instruction and
which are outputs from it.  @samp{=} identifies an output; @samp{+}
identifies an operand that is both input and output; all other operands
are assumed to be input only.

If you specify @samp{=} or @samp{+} in a constraint, you put it in the
first character of the constraint string.

@cindex @samp{&} in constraint
@cindex earlyclobber operand
@item &
Means (in a particular alternative) that this operand is an
@dfn{earlyclobber} operand, which is modified before the instruction is
finished using the input operands.  Therefore, this operand may not lie
in a register that is used as an input operand or as part of any memory
address.

@samp{&} applies only to the alternative in which it is written.  In
constraints with multiple alternatives, sometimes one alternative
requires @samp{&} while others do not.  See, for example, the
@samp{movdf} insn of the 68000.

An input operand can be tied to an earlyclobber operand if its only
use as an input occurs before the early result is written.  Adding
alternatives of this form often allows GCC to produce better code
when only some of the inputs can be affected by the earlyclobber.
See, for example, the @samp{mulsi3} insn of the ARM@.

@samp{&} does not obviate the need to write @samp{=}.

@cindex @samp{%} in constraint
@item %
Declares the instruction to be commutative for this operand and the
following operand.  This means that the compiler may interchange the
two operands if that is the cheapest way to make all operands fit the
constraints.
@ifset INTERNALS
This is often used in patterns for addition instructions
that really have only two operands: the result must go in one of the
arguments.  Here for example, is how the 68000 halfword-add
instruction is defined:

@smallexample
(define_insn "addhi3"
  [(set (match_operand:HI 0 "general_operand" "=m,r")
     (plus:HI (match_operand:HI 1 "general_operand" "%0,0")
              (match_operand:HI 2 "general_operand" "di,g")))]
  @dots{})
@end smallexample
@end ifset
GCC can only handle one commutative pair in an asm; if you use more,
the compiler may fail.  Note that you need not use the modifier if
the two alternatives are strictly identical; this would only waste
time in the reload pass.  The modifier is not operational after
register allocation, so the result of @code{define_peephole2}
and @code{define_split}s performed after reload cannot rely on
@samp{%} to make the intended insn match.

@cindex @samp{#} in constraint
@item #
Says that all following characters, up to the next comma, are to be
ignored as a constraint.  They are significant only for choosing
register preferences.

@cindex @samp{*} in constraint
@item *
Says that the following character should be ignored when choosing
register preferences.  @samp{*} has no effect on the meaning of the
constraint as a constraint, and no effect on reloading.

@ifset INTERNALS
Here is an example: the 68000 has an instruction to sign-extend a
halfword in a data register, and can also sign-extend a value by
copy