extend.texi

理解和实践操作系统的一本好书

@samp{uhr} or @samp{UHR} for @code{unsigned short _Fract} and
@code{_Sat unsigned short _Fract},
@samp{ur} or @samp{UR} for @code{unsigned _Fract} and
@code{_Sat unsigned _Fract},
@samp{ulr} or @samp{ULR} for @code{unsigned long _Fract} and
@code{_Sat unsigned long _Fract},
@samp{ullr} or @samp{ULLR} for @code{unsigned long long _Fract}
and @code{_Sat unsigned long long _Fract},
@samp{hk} or @samp{HK} for @code{short _Accum} and @code{_Sat short _Accum},
@samp{k} or @samp{K} for @code{_Accum} and @code{_Sat _Accum},
@samp{lk} or @samp{LK} for @code{long _Accum} and @code{_Sat long _Accum},
@samp{llk} or @samp{LLK} for @code{long long _Accum} and
@code{_Sat long long _Accum},
@samp{uhk} or @samp{UHK} for @code{unsigned short _Accum} and
@code{_Sat unsigned short _Accum},
@samp{uk} or @samp{UK} for @code{unsigned _Accum} and
@code{_Sat unsigned _Accum},
@samp{ulk} or @samp{ULK} for @code{unsigned long _Accum} and
@code{_Sat unsigned long _Accum},
and @samp{ullk} or @samp{ULLK} for @code{unsigned long long _Accum}
and @code{_Sat unsigned long long _Accum}.

GCC support of fixed-point types as specified by the draft technical report
is incomplete:

@itemize @bullet
@item
Pragmas to control overflow and rounding behaviors are not implemented.
@end itemize

Fixed-point types are supported by the DWARF2 debug information format.

@node Zero Length
@section Arrays of Length Zero
@cindex arrays of length zero
@cindex zero-length arrays
@cindex length-zero arrays
@cindex flexible array members

Zero-length arrays are allowed in GNU C@.  They are very useful as the
last element of a structure which is really a header for a variable-length
object:

@smallexample
struct line @{
  int length;
  char contents[0];
@};

struct line *thisline = (struct line *)
  malloc (sizeof (struct line) + this_length);
thisline->length = this_length;
@end smallexample

In ISO C90, you would have to give @code{contents} a length of 1, which
means either you waste space or complicate the argument to @code{malloc}.

In ISO C99, you would use a @dfn{flexible array member}, which is
slightly different in syntax and semantics:

@itemize @bullet
@item
Flexible array members are written as @code{contents[]} without
the @code{0}.

@item
Flexible array members have incomplete type, and so the @code{sizeof}
operator may not be applied.  As a quirk of the original implementation
of zero-length arrays, @code{sizeof} evaluates to zero.

@item
Flexible array members may only appear as the last member of a
@code{struct} that is otherwise non-empty.

@item
A structure containing a flexible array member, or a union containing
such a structure (possibly recursively), may not be a member of a
structure or an element of an array.  (However, these uses are
permitted by GCC as extensions.)
@end itemize

GCC versions before 3.0 allowed zero-length arrays to be statically
initialized, as if they were flexible arrays.  In addition to those
cases that were useful, it also allowed initializations in situations
that would corrupt later data.  Non-empty initialization of zero-length
arrays is now treated like any case where there are more initializer
elements than the array holds, in that a suitable warning about "excess
elements in array" is given, and the excess elements (all of them, in
this case) are ignored.

Instead GCC allows static initialization of flexible array members.
This is equivalent to defining a new structure containing the original
structure followed by an array of sufficient size to contain the data.
I.e.@: in the following, @code{f1} is constructed as if it were declared
like @code{f2}.

@smallexample
struct f1 @{
  int x; int y[];
@} f1 = @{ 1, @{ 2, 3, 4 @} @};

struct f2 @{
  struct f1 f1; int data[3];
@} f2 = @{ @{ 1 @}, @{ 2, 3, 4 @} @};
@end smallexample

@noindent
The convenience of this extension is that @code{f1} has the desired
type, eliminating the need to consistently refer to @code{f2.f1}.

This has symmetry with normal static arrays, in that an array of
unknown size is also written with @code{[]}.

Of course, this extension only makes sense if the extra data comes at
the end of a top-level object, as otherwise we would be overwriting
data at subsequent offsets.  To avoid undue complication and confusion
with initialization of deeply nested arrays, we simply disallow any
non-empty initialization except when the structure is the top-level
object.  For example:

@smallexample
struct foo @{ int x; int y[]; @};
struct bar @{ struct foo z; @};

struct foo a = @{ 1, @{ 2, 3, 4 @} @};        // @r{Valid.}
struct bar b = @{ @{ 1, @{ 2, 3, 4 @} @} @};    // @r{Invalid.}
struct bar c = @{ @{ 1, @{ @} @} @};            // @r{Valid.}
struct foo d[1] = @{ @{ 1 @{ 2, 3, 4 @} @} @};  // @r{Invalid.}
@end smallexample

@node Empty Structures
@section Structures With No Members
@cindex empty structures
@cindex zero-size structures

GCC permits a C structure to have no members:

@smallexample
struct empty @{
@};
@end smallexample

The structure will have size zero.  In C++, empty structures are part
of the language.  G++ treats empty structures as if they had a single
member of type @code{char}.

@node Variable Length
@section Arrays of Variable Length
@cindex variable-length arrays
@cindex arrays of variable length
@cindex VLAs

Variable-length automatic arrays are allowed in ISO C99, and as an
extension GCC accepts them in C89 mode and in C++.  (However, GCC's
implementation of variable-length arrays does not yet conform in detail
to the ISO C99 standard.)  These arrays are
declared like any other automatic arrays, but with a length that is not
a constant expression.  The storage is allocated at the point of
declaration and deallocated when the brace-level is exited.  For
example:

@smallexample
FILE *
concat_fopen (char *s1, char *s2, char *mode)
@{
  char str[strlen (s1) + strlen (s2) + 1];
  strcpy (str, s1);
  strcat (str, s2);
  return fopen (str, mode);
@}
@end smallexample

@cindex scope of a variable length array
@cindex variable-length array scope
@cindex deallocating variable length arrays
Jumping or breaking out of the scope of the array name deallocates the
storage.  Jumping into the scope is not allowed; you get an error
message for it.

@cindex @code{alloca} vs variable-length arrays
You can use the function @code{alloca} to get an effect much like
variable-length arrays.  The function @code{alloca} is available in
many other C implementations (but not in all).  On the other hand,
variable-length arrays are more elegant.

There are other differences between these two methods.  Space allocated
with @code{alloca} exists until the containing @emph{function} returns.
The space for a variable-length array is deallocated as soon as the array
name's scope ends.  (If you use both variable-length arrays and
@code{alloca} in the same function, deallocation of a variable-length array
will also deallocate anything more recently allocated with @code{alloca}.)

You can also use variable-length arrays as arguments to functions:

@smallexample
struct entry
tester (int len, char data[len][len])
@{
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
@}
@end smallexample

The length of an array is computed once when the storage is allocated
and is remembered for the scope of the array in case you access it with
@code{sizeof}.

If you want to pass the array first and the length afterward, you can
use a forward declaration in the parameter list---another GNU extension.

@smallexample
struct entry
tester (int len; char data[len][len], int len)
@{
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
@}
@end smallexample

@cindex parameter forward declaration
The @samp{int len} before the semicolon is a @dfn{parameter forward
declaration}, and it serves the purpose of making the name @code{len}
known when the declaration of @code{data} is parsed.

You can write any number of such parameter forward declarations in the
parameter list.  They can be separated by commas or semicolons, but the
last one must end with a semicolon, which is followed by the ``real''
parameter declarations.  Each forward declaration must match a ``real''
declaration in parameter name and data type.  ISO C99 does not support
parameter forward declarations.

@node Variadic Macros
@section Macros with a Variable Number of Arguments.
@cindex variable number of arguments
@cindex macro with variable arguments
@cindex rest argument (in macro)
@cindex variadic macros

In the ISO C standard of 1999, a macro can be declared to accept a
variable number of arguments much as a function can.  The syntax for
defining the macro is similar to that of a function.  Here is an
example:

@smallexample
#define debug(format, ...) fprintf (stderr, format, __VA_ARGS__)
@end smallexample

Here @samp{@dots{}} is a @dfn{variable argument}.  In the invocation of
such a macro, it represents the zero or more tokens until the closing
parenthesis that ends the invocation, including any commas.  This set of
tokens replaces the identifier @code{__VA_ARGS__} in the macro body
wherever it appears.  See the CPP manual for more information.

GCC has long supported variadic macros, and used a different syntax that
allowed you to give a name to the variable arguments just like any other
argument.  Here is an example:

@smallexample
#define debug(format, args...) fprintf (stderr, format, args)
@end smallexample

This is in all ways equivalent to the ISO C example above, but arguably
more readable and descriptive.

GNU CPP has two further variadic macro extensions, and permits them to
be used with either of the above forms of macro definition.

In standard C, you are not allowed to leave the variable argument out
entirely; but you are allowed to pass an empty argument.  For example,
this invocation is invalid in ISO C, because there is no comma after
the string:

@smallexample
debug ("A message")
@end smallexample

GNU CPP permits you to completely omit the variable arguments in this
way.  In the above examples, the compiler would complain, though since
the expansion of the macro still has the extra comma after the format
string.

To help solve this problem, CPP behaves specially for variable arguments
used with the token paste operator, @samp{##}.  If instead you write

@smallexample
#define debug(format, ...) fprintf (stderr, format, ## __VA_ARGS__)
@end smallexample

and if the variable arguments are omitted or empty, the @samp{##}
operator causes the preprocessor to remove the comma before it.  If you
do provide some variable arguments in your macro invocation, GNU CPP
does not complain about the paste operation and instead places the
variable arguments after the comma.  Just like any other pasted macro
argument, these arguments are not macro expanded.

@node Escaped Newlines
@section Slightly Looser Rules for Escaped Newlines
@cindex escaped newlines
@cindex newlines (escaped)

Recently, the preprocessor has relaxed its treatment of escaped
newlines.  Previously, the newline had to immediately follow a
backslash.  The current implementation allows whitespace in the form
of spaces, horizontal and vertical tabs, and form feeds between the
backslash and the subsequent newline.  The preprocessor issues a
warning, but treats it as a valid escaped newline and combines the two
lines to form a single logical line.  This works within comments and
tokens, as well as between tokens.  Comments are @emph{not} treated as
whitespace for the purposes of this relaxation, since they have not
yet been replaced with spaces.

@node Subscripting
@section Non-Lvalue Arrays May Have Subscripts
@cindex subscripting
@cindex arrays, non-lvalue

@cindex subscripting and function values
In ISO C99, arrays that are not lvalues still decay to pointers, and
may be subscripted, although they may not be modified or used after
the next sequence point and the unary @samp{&} operator may not be
applied to them.  As an extension, GCC allows such arrays to be
subscripted in C89 mode, though otherwise they do not decay to
pointers outside C99 mode.  For example,
this is valid in GNU C though not valid in C89:

@smallexample
@group
struct foo @{int a[4];@};

struct foo f();

bar (int index)
@{
  return f().a[index];
@}
@end group
@end smallexample

@node Pointer Arith
@section Arithmetic on @code{void}- and Function-Pointers
@cindex void pointers, arithmetic
@cindex void, size of pointer to
@cindex function pointers, arithmetic
@cindex function, size of pointer to

In GNU C, addition and subtraction operations are supported on pointers to
@code{void} and on pointers to functions.  This is done by treating the
size of a @code{void} or of a function as 1.

A consequence of this is that @code{sizeof} is also allowed on @code{void}
and on function types, and returns 1.

@opindex Wpointer-arith
The option @option{-Wpointer-arith} requests a warning if these extensions
are used.

@node Initializers
@section Non-Constant Initializers
@cindex initializers, non-constant
@cindex non-constant initializers

As in standard C++ and ISO C99, the elements of an aggregate initializer for an
automatic variable are not required to be constant expressions in GNU C@.
Here is an example of an initializer with run-time varying elements: