extend.texi

理解和实践操作系统的一本好书

@c Copyright (C) 1988, 1989, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001,
@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

@c This is part of the GCC manual.
@c For copying conditions, see the file gcc.texi.

@node C Extensions
@chapter Extensions to the C Language Family
@cindex extensions, C language
@cindex C language extensions

@opindex pedantic
GNU C provides several language features not found in ISO standard C@.
(The @option{-pedantic} option directs GCC to print a warning message if
any of these features is used.)  To test for the availability of these
features in conditional compilation, check for a predefined macro
@code{__GNUC__}, which is always defined under GCC@.

These extensions are available in C and Objective-C@.  Most of them are
also available in C++.  @xref{C++ Extensions,,Extensions to the
C++ Language}, for extensions that apply @emph{only} to C++.

Some features that are in ISO C99 but not C89 or C++ are also, as
extensions, accepted by GCC in C89 mode and in C++.

@menu
* Statement Exprs::     Putting statements and declarations inside expressions.
* Local Labels::        Labels local to a block.
* Labels as Values::    Getting pointers to labels, and computed gotos.
* Nested Functions::    As in Algol and Pascal, lexical scoping of functions.
* Constructing Calls::	Dispatching a call to another function.
* Typeof::              @code{typeof}: referring to the type of an expression.
* Conditionals::        Omitting the middle operand of a @samp{?:} expression.
* Long Long::		Double-word integers---@code{long long int}.
* Complex::             Data types for complex numbers.
* Floating Types::      Additional Floating Types.
* Decimal Float::       Decimal Floating Types. 
* Hex Floats::          Hexadecimal floating-point constants.
* Fixed-Point::         Fixed-Point Types.
* Zero Length::         Zero-length arrays.
* Variable Length::     Arrays whose length is computed at run time.
* Empty Structures::    Structures with no members.
* Variadic Macros::	Macros with a variable number of arguments.
* Escaped Newlines::    Slightly looser rules for escaped newlines.
* Subscripting::        Any array can be subscripted, even if not an lvalue.
* Pointer Arith::       Arithmetic on @code{void}-pointers and function pointers.
* Initializers::        Non-constant initializers.
* Compound Literals::   Compound literals give structures, unions
                         or arrays as values.
* Designated Inits::	Labeling elements of initializers.
* Cast to Union::       Casting to union type from any member of the union.
* Case Ranges::		`case 1 ... 9' and such.
* Mixed Declarations::	Mixing declarations and code.
* Function Attributes:: Declaring that functions have no side effects,
                         or that they can never return.
* Attribute Syntax::    Formal syntax for attributes.
* Function Prototypes:: Prototype declarations and old-style definitions.
* C++ Comments::        C++ comments are recognized.
* Dollar Signs::        Dollar sign is allowed in identifiers.
* Character Escapes::   @samp{\e} stands for the character @key{ESC}.
* Variable Attributes::	Specifying attributes of variables.
* Type Attributes::	Specifying attributes of types.
* Alignment::           Inquiring about the alignment of a type or variable.
* Inline::              Defining inline functions (as fast as macros).
* Extended Asm::        Assembler instructions with C expressions as operands.
                         (With them you can define ``built-in'' functions.)
* Constraints::         Constraints for asm operands
* Asm Labels::          Specifying the assembler name to use for a C symbol.
* Explicit Reg Vars::   Defining variables residing in specified registers.
* Alternate Keywords::  @code{__const__}, @code{__asm__}, etc., for header files.
* Incomplete Enums::    @code{enum foo;}, with details to follow.
* Function Names::	Printable strings which are the name of the current
			 function.
* Return Address::      Getting the return or frame address of a function.
* Vector Extensions::   Using vector instructions through built-in functions.
* Offsetof::            Special syntax for implementing @code{offsetof}.
* Atomic Builtins::	Built-in functions for atomic memory access.
* Object Size Checking:: Built-in functions for limited buffer overflow
                        checking.
* Other Builtins::      Other built-in functions.
* Target Builtins::     Built-in functions specific to particular targets.
* Target Format Checks:: Format checks specific to particular targets.
* Pragmas::             Pragmas accepted by GCC.
* Unnamed Fields::      Unnamed struct/union fields within structs/unions.
* Thread-Local::        Per-thread variables.
* Binary constants::    Binary constants using the @samp{0b} prefix.
@end menu

@node Statement Exprs
@section Statements and Declarations in Expressions
@cindex statements inside expressions
@cindex declarations inside expressions
@cindex expressions containing statements
@cindex macros, statements in expressions

@c the above section title wrapped and causes an underfull hbox.. i
@c changed it from "within" to "in". --mew 4feb93
A compound statement enclosed in parentheses may appear as an expression
in GNU C@.  This allows you to use loops, switches, and local variables
within an expression.

Recall that a compound statement is a sequence of statements surrounded
by braces; in this construct, parentheses go around the braces.  For
example:

@smallexample
(@{ int y = foo (); int z;
   if (y > 0) z = y;
   else z = - y;
   z; @})
@end smallexample

@noindent
is a valid (though slightly more complex than necessary) expression
for the absolute value of @code{foo ()}.

The last thing in the compound statement should be an expression
followed by a semicolon; the value of this subexpression serves as the
value of the entire construct.  (If you use some other kind of statement
last within the braces, the construct has type @code{void}, and thus
effectively no value.)

This feature is especially useful in making macro definitions ``safe'' (so
that they evaluate each operand exactly once).  For example, the
``maximum'' function is commonly defined as a macro in standard C as
follows:

@smallexample
#define max(a,b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b))
@end smallexample

@noindent
@cindex side effects, macro argument
But this definition computes either @var{a} or @var{b} twice, with bad
results if the operand has side effects.  In GNU C, if you know the
type of the operands (here taken as @code{int}), you can define
the macro safely as follows:

@smallexample
#define maxint(a,b) \
  (@{int _a = (a), _b = (b); _a > _b ? _a : _b; @})
@end smallexample

Embedded statements are not allowed in constant expressions, such as
the value of an enumeration constant, the width of a bit-field, or
the initial value of a static variable.

If you don't know the type of the operand, you can still do this, but you
must use @code{typeof} (@pxref{Typeof}).

In G++, the result value of a statement expression undergoes array and
function pointer decay, and is returned by value to the enclosing
expression.  For instance, if @code{A} is a class, then

@smallexample
        A a;

        (@{a;@}).Foo ()
@end smallexample

@noindent
will construct a temporary @code{A} object to hold the result of the
statement expression, and that will be used to invoke @code{Foo}.
Therefore the @code{this} pointer observed by @code{Foo} will not be the
address of @code{a}.

Any temporaries created within a statement within a statement expression
will be destroyed at the statement's end.  This makes statement
expressions inside macros slightly different from function calls.  In
the latter case temporaries introduced during argument evaluation will
be destroyed at the end of the statement that includes the function
call.  In the statement expression case they will be destroyed during
the statement expression.  For instance,

@smallexample
#define macro(a)  (@{__typeof__(a) b = (a); b + 3; @})
template<typename T> T function(T a) @{ T b = a; return b + 3; @}

void foo ()
@{
  macro (X ());
  function (X ());
@}
@end smallexample

@noindent
will have different places where temporaries are destroyed.  For the
@code{macro} case, the temporary @code{X} will be destroyed just after
the initialization of @code{b}.  In the @code{function} case that
temporary will be destroyed when the function returns.

These considerations mean that it is probably a bad idea to use
statement-expressions of this form in header files that are designed to
work with C++.  (Note that some versions of the GNU C Library contained
header files using statement-expression that lead to precisely this
bug.)

Jumping into a statement expression with @code{goto} or using a
@code{switch} statement outside the statement expression with a
@code{case} or @code{default} label inside the statement expression is
not permitted.  Jumping into a statement expression with a computed
@code{goto} (@pxref{Labels as Values}) yields undefined behavior.
Jumping out of a statement expression is permitted, but if the
statement expression is part of a larger expression then it is
unspecified which other subexpressions of that expression have been
evaluated except where the language definition requires certain
subexpressions to be evaluated before or after the statement
expression.  In any case, as with a function call the evaluation of a
statement expression is not interleaved with the evaluation of other
parts of the containing expression.  For example,

@smallexample
  foo (), ((@{ bar1 (); goto a; 0; @}) + bar2 ()), baz();
@end smallexample

@noindent
will call @code{foo} and @code{bar1} and will not call @code{baz} but
may or may not call @code{bar2}.  If @code{bar2} is called, it will be
called after @code{foo} and before @code{bar1}

@node Local Labels
@section Locally Declared Labels
@cindex local labels
@cindex macros, local labels

GCC allows you to declare @dfn{local labels} in any nested block
scope.  A local label is just like an ordinary label, but you can
only reference it (with a @code{goto} statement, or by taking its
address) within the block in which it was declared.

A local label declaration looks like this:

@smallexample
__label__ @var{label};
@end smallexample

@noindent
or

@smallexample
__label__ @var{label1}, @var{label2}, /* @r{@dots{}} */;
@end smallexample

Local label declarations must come at the beginning of the block,
before any ordinary declarations or statements.

The label declaration defines the label @emph{name}, but does not define
the label itself.  You must do this in the usual way, with
@code{@var{label}:}, within the statements of the statement expression.

The local label feature is useful for complex macros.  If a macro
contains nested loops, a @code{goto} can be useful for breaking out of
them.  However, an ordinary label whose scope is the whole function
cannot be used: if the macro can be expanded several times in one
function, the label will be multiply defined in that function.  A
local label avoids this problem.  For example:

@smallexample
#define SEARCH(value, array, target)              \
do @{                                              \
  __label__ found;                                \
  typeof (target) _SEARCH_target = (target);      \
  typeof (*(array)) *_SEARCH_array = (array);     \
  int i, j;                                       \
  int value;                                      \
  for (i = 0; i < max; i++)                       \
    for (j = 0; j < max; j++)                     \
      if (_SEARCH_array[i][j] == _SEARCH_target)  \
        @{ (value) = i; goto found; @}              \
  (value) = -1;                                   \
 found:;                                          \
@} while (0)
@end smallexample

This could also be written using a statement-expression:

@smallexample
#define SEARCH(array, target)                     \
(@{                                                \
  __label__ found;                                \
  typeof (target) _SEARCH_target = (target);      \
  typeof (*(array)) *_SEARCH_array = (array);     \
  int i, j;                                       \
  int value;                                      \
  for (i = 0; i < max; i++)                       \
    for (j = 0; j < max; j++)                     \
      if (_SEARCH_array[i][j] == _SEARCH_target)  \
        @{ value = i; goto found; @}                \
  value = -1;                                     \
 found:                                           \
  value;                                          \
@})
@end smallexample

Local label declarations also make the labels they declare visible to
nested functions, if there are any.  @xref{Nested Functions}, for details.

@node Labels as Values
@section Labels as Values
@cindex labels as values
@cindex computed gotos
@cindex goto with computed label
@cindex address of a label

You can get the address of a label defined in the current function
(or a containing function) with the unary operator @samp{&&}.  The
value has type @code{void *}.  This value is a constant and can be used
wherever a constant of that type is valid.  For example:

@smallexample
void *ptr;
/* @r{@dots{}} */
ptr = &&foo;
@end smallexample

To use these values, you need to be able to jump to one.  This is done
with the computed goto statement@footnote{The analogous feature in
Fortran is called an assigned goto, but that name seems inappropriate in
C, where one can do more than simply store label addresses in label
variables.}, @code{goto *@var{exp};}.  For example,

@smallexample
goto *ptr;
@end smallexample

@noindent
Any expression of type @code{void *} is allowed.

One way of using these constants is in initializing a static array that
will serve as a jump table:

@smallexample
static void *array[] = @{ &&foo, &&bar, &&hack @};
@end smallexample

Then you can select a label with indexing, like this:

@smallexample
goto *array[i];
@end smallexample

@noindent
Note that this does not check whether the subscript is in bounds---array
indexing in C never does that.

Such an array of label values serves a purpose much like that of the
@code{switch} statement.  The @code{switch} statement is cleaner, so
use that rather than an array unless the problem does not fit a
@code{switch} statement very well.

Another use of label values is in an interpreter for threaded code.
The labels within the interpreter function can be stored in the
threaded code for super-fast dispatching.

You may not use this mechanism to jump to code in a different function.
If you do that, totally unpredictable things will happen.  The best way to
avoid this is to store the label address only in automatic variables and
never pass it as an argument.

An alternate way to write the above example is

@smallexample
static const int array[] = @{ &&foo - &&foo, &&bar - &&foo,