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Practical AI in Java 人工智能编程

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Politics is the process and method of making decisions for groups. Although it is generally applied to governments, politics is also observed in all human group interactions including corporate, academic, and religious institutions.

The Politics Series

    * Politics Portal
    * Politics by country
    * Political campaigns
    * Political science
    * Political philosophy
    * Ideology

Democracy

    * Democracy
    * Participatory democracy
    * Representative democracy
    * Soviet democracy
    * History of democracy
    * Referenda
    * Liberal democracy
    * Representation
    * Voting
    * Voting systems

Elections

    * Elections
    * Elections by country
    * Elections by date

Political parties

    * Political party
    * Parties by country
    * Parties by name
    * Parties by ideology
    * Ideologies of parties

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Political science is the study of political behavior and examines the acquisition and application of power, i.e. the ability to impose one's will on another.

One theorist, Harold Lasswell, has defined politics as "who gets what, when, and how."

Another definition of 'politics' is: "how power is distributed within a group or system".
Contents
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    * 1 A natural state
    * 2 Early history
    * 3 Definitions
    * 4 Political power
    * 5 Authority and legitimacy
          o 5.1 Traditional
          o 5.2 Charismatic
          o 5.3 Legal-rational
    * 6 See also

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A natural state

In 1651, Thomas Hobbes published his most famous work, Leviathan, in which he proposed a model of early human development to justify the creation of human associations. Hobbes described an ideal state of nature wherein every person had equal right to every resource in nature and was free to use any means to acquire those resources. Hobbes noted that such an arrangement created a “war of all against all” (bellum omnium contra omnes). Further, he noted that men would enter into a social contract and would give up absolute rights for certain protections test.

While it appears that social cooperation and dominance hierarchies predate human societies, Hobbes’s model illustrates a rationale for the creation of societies (polities).
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Early history

V.G. Childe describes the transformation of human society that took place around 6000 BCE as an urban revolution. Among the features of this new type of civilization were the institutionalization of social stratification, non-agricultural specialised crafts (including priests and lawyers), taxation, and writing. All of which require densely populated settlements - cities.

The word "Politics" is derived from the Greek word for city-state, "Polis". Corporate, religious, academic and every other polity, especially those constrained by limited resources, contain dominance hierarchy and therefore politics. Politics is most often studied in relation to the administration of governments.

The oldest form of government was tribal organization. Rule by elders was supplanted by monarchy, and a system of Feudalism as an arrangement where a single family dominated the political affairs of a community. Monarchies have existed in one form or another for the past 5000 years of human history.


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Definitions

    * Power is the ability to impose one's will on another. It implies a capacity for force, i.e violence.
    * Authority is the power to enforce laws, to exact obedience, to command, to determine, or to judge.
    * Legitimacy is an attribute of government gained through the acquisition and application of power in accordance with recognized or accepted standards or principles.
    * A government is the body that has the authority to make and enforce rules or laws.

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Political power

Samuel Gompers’ maxim,"Reward your friends and punish your enemies," hints at two of the five types of power recognized by social psychologists: incentive power (the power to reward) and coercive power (the power to punish). Arguably the other three grow out of these two.

Legitimate power, the power of the policeman or the referee, is the power given to an individual by a recognized authority to enforce standards of behavior. Legitimate power is similar to coercive power in that unacceptable behavior is punished by fine or penalty.

Referent power is bestowed upon individuals by virtue of accomplishment or attitude. Fulfillment of the desire to feel similar to a celebrity or a hero is the reward for obedience.

Agriculture is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and other desired products by the cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals (livestock). The practice of agriculture is also known as "farming," while scientists, inventors and others devoted to improving farming methods and implements are also said to be engaged in agriculture.

More people in the world are involved in agriculture as their primary economic activity than in any other, yet it only accounts for four percent of the world's GDP.
Contents
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    * 1 Overview
    * 2 History
    * 3 Crops
          o 3.1 World production of major crops in 2004
          o 3.2 Crop improvement
    * 4 Environmental problems
    * 5 Policy
    * 6 Methods
    * 7 References