ch5.mht

游戏设计大师Chris Crawford的大作《The Art of Game Design》唯一不足的是英文版的

rearranging=20
  before they can be used. You should not wed yourself to any of them. A =
large=20
  collection of candidates for implementation is a useful resource =
during the=20
  design phase. A laundry list of implementation ideas that must be =
included is=20
  a liability. Indulge yourself in creating implementation ideas, but be =

  prepared to winnow them ruthlessly during design.</P>
  <P>For example, I recently designed a corporate politics game in =
association=20
  with another person. During the research and preparation phase, we =
came up=20
  with a long list of clever ideas that we wanted to into the game. We =
had=20
  agreed that the game would have a feminist point of view without being =

  preachy. We wanted to have a demanding boss, tough projects, =
deadlines,=20
  brownie points, one male chauvinist pig, neutral males, neutral =
females,=20
  family and home obligations, mentors, and the competition for the big=20
  promotion. We managed to include almost all of these ideas in the =
final=20
  design. We were not able to integrate the family elements into the =
game. Every=20
  design we created failed to do justice to our desires. In the end, we =
had to=20
  discard this desirable element. <FONT size=3D-1><A=20
  =
href=3D"http://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/game-book/Chapter5.html#=
top">Top</A></FONT></P>
  <P><A name=3DDESIGN></A><B>DESIGN PHASE</B></P>
  <P>You now have a clear idea of the game=92s ideals but you know =
nothing of its=20
  form. You are now ready to begin the concrete design phase. Your =
primary goal=20
  in the design phase is to create the outlines of three interdependent=20
  structures: the I/O structure, the game structure, and the program =
structure.=20
  The I/O structure is the system that communicates information between =
the=20
  computer and the player. The game structure is the internal =
architecture of=20
  causal relationships that define the obstacles the player must =
overcome in the=20
  course of the game. The program structure is the organization of =
mainline=20
  code, subroutines, interrupts, and data that make up the entire =
program. All=20
  three structures must be created simultaneously, for they must work in =

  concert. Decisions primarily relating to one structure must be checked =
for=20
  their impacts on the other structures. <FONT size=3D-1><A=20
  =
href=3D"http://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/game-book/Chapter5.html#=
top">Top</A></FONT></P>
  <P><A name=3DI/O></A><B>I/O Structure</B></P>
  <P>I prefer to start with the I/O structure, for it is the most =
constraining=20
  of the three. I/O is the language of communication between the =
computer and=20
  the player; like any human language, it is the funnel through which we =
must=20
  squeeze the avalanche of thoughts, ideas, and feelings that we seek to =
share=20
  with our fellow human beings. I/O will dictate what can and cannot be =
done=20
  with the gains.</P>
  <P>I/O is composed of input and output. Unlike human languages, the =
two are=20
  not symmetric. The computer has two means of output to the human: =
graphics on=20
  the screen and sound. In the future, we may see more exotic devices =
for output=20
  for games, but for the moment these are the two most common. Graphics =
are the=20
  most important of the two, perhaps because we humans are more oriented =
towards=20
  vision than hearing. For this reason, many game designers devote a =
large=20
  portion of their energy towards the design of quality displays. =
Indeed, some=20
  designers go so far as to design the display first and let the game =
develop=20
  from the display, as extreme an example of goal-less design as ever =
there=20
  could be.</P>
  <P>Don=92t make the common mistake of creating cute graphics solely to =
show off=20
  your ability to create cute graphics. Graphics are there for a reason: =
to=20
  communicate. Use graphics to communicate to the user forcefully and =
with=20
  feeling, and for no other reason. Plan functional, meaningful graphics =
that=20
  convey the critical game information while supporting the fantasy of =
the game.=20
  Don=92t use graphics tricks as a crutch for a bad game design. If the =
game is=20
  dull and boring, no amount of graphics gift-wrapping is going to fix =
it. The=20
  worst examples of this mistake are the games that alternate boring =
game=20
  segments with cute but meaningless graphics displays. Use of sound =
should=20
  follow the same rules: use it to tell the player what=92s going on in =
the game.=20
  The only place where striking but uninformative graphics and sound can =
be=20
  useful is at the beginning of the game, and then only if they help to=20
  establish the mood or tone of the game.</P>
  <P>Storyboards are a graphics design tool that tempt many game =
designers, for=20
  they are a well-developed technology from the film industry. They are =
not=20
  appropriate to games, because storyboards are an intrinsically =
sequential=20
  technology. Games are not sequential, they are branching tree =
structures. The=20
  game designer who uses an intrinsically sequential tool risks having =
her=20
  designs made subtly sequential. The tool shapes the mind of its user; =
the saw=20
  suggests that we cut wood, and the freeway suggests that we drive =
wherever it=20
  takes us, not where we choose to go. In like manner does a storyboard =
impress=20
  its sequentiality upon our games.</P>
  <P>Devote special care to the input structure of the game. The input =
structure=20
  is the player=92s tactile contact with the game; people attach deep =
significance=20
  to touch, so touch must be a rewarding experience for them. Have you =
ever=20
  noticed the tremendous importance programmers attach to the feel of a=20
  keyboard? Remember that players will do the same thing with your game. =
A case=20
  in point is provided by the games JAWBREAKER and MOUSKATTACK =
(trademarks of=20
  On-Line Systems). In both games the joystick entry routine admits an=20
  unfortunate ambiguity when a diagonal move is entered. This gives the =
player=20
  the impression that the joystick is unresponsive. I have seen players =
slam=20
  down the joystick in frustration and swear that they would never play =
the damn=20
  thing again. Remember this well as you plan your input structure: will =
your=20
  input structure frustrate and anger your players?</P>
  <P>The input structure lies at the heart of a fundamental dilemma all =
game=20
  designers must face. An excellent game allows the player to interact =
heavily=20
  with his opponent, to invest a great deal of his personality into the =
game.=20
  This requires that the game offer the player a large number of =
meaningful=20
  options, enough options that the player can express the nuances of his =

  personality through the choices he makes. Yet, decisions must be =
inputted, and=20
  a large number of options seem to require an extensive and complicated =
input=20
  structure, which could well be intimidating to the player. Our =
dilemma, then,=20
  is that an excellent game seems to require a hulking input =
structure.</P>
  <P>The dilemma is resolved through the designer=92s creativity in =
designing a=20
  clean input structure that allows many options. This does not come =
easily.=20
  Many schemes must be considered and rejected before a satisfactory =
solution is=20
  found. Yet, such a solution is often possible. In designing SCRAM, a =
nuclear=20
  power plant game, I faced the following problem: how can a player =
control an=20
  entire nuclear power plant with only a joystick? At first glance, the =
task=20
  seems hopeless. Nevertheless, the solution I eventually discovered =
works very=20
  well. The player moves a cursor through the plant display. With the =
cursor=20
  adjacent to a piece of controllable equipment, the player presses the =
joystick=20
  button and pushes the stick up to turn on or increase power, and down =
to turn=20
  off or decrease power. The system is simple and easily understood once =
the=20
  player has seen it.</P>
  <P>There is a general solution, at the theoretical level, to the =
dilemma of=20
  option richness versus input cleanliness; I call this solution "the =
webwork".=20
  To design a webwork game, we start with a small number of pieces. We =
then=20
  define a relationship that applies to all pairs of pieces. The set of=20
  relationships between pieces constitutes a webwork. The webwork can =
easily=20
  become quite complex, yet few pieces are required to create the =
webwork. In=20
  general, the number of pairwise relationships is equal to N*(N-1), =
where N is=20
  the number of pieces. Thus, four pieces can generate 12 pairings, 8 =
pieces can=20
  generate 56 pairings, and 16 pieces can generate 240 pairings. With =
fewer=20
  pieces to manipulate the player faces fewer I/O problems without =
sacrificing a=20
  rich set of relationships in the game.</P>
  <P>Backgammon illustrates the simplicity and power of webwork games.=20
  Backgammon has only 30 pieces and 26 positions for them to occupy. The =

  relationships between pieces are fairly simple and are expressed =
through the=20
  ability to move and bump. Yet, on any given move, each piece has an =
offensive,=20
  defensive, blocking, or blocked relationship with most of the other =
pieces on=20
  the board. This is partly because almost every other board position in =
front=20
  of the piece can be reached, given the right die roll. It is no =
accident that=20
  the length of the playing area (24 steps) is exactly equal to the =
maximum die=20
  roll. It had to be that way to squeeze all of the pieces into range of =
each=20
  other, thereby maximizing the number of significant pairwise=20
relationships.</P>
  <P>Most webwork games rely on spatially expressed webworks; these are =
easy to=20
  depict and easy for the player to visualize. Few games have =
non-spatial=20
  webworks; my own GOSSIP is one such game. Curiously, GOSSIP uses a =
spatial=20
  webwork for its internal computations even though the game webwork is=20
  non-spatial. This may imply that game webworks are intrinsically =
spatial; it=20
  may equally well imply that I cannot shake my mind-set free from =
spatial=20
  webworks.</P>
  <P>The choice of input device is an important design decision. I =
maintain that=20
  a good game designer should eschew the use of the keyboard for input =
and=20
  restrict herself to a single simple device, such as a joystick, =
paddle, or=20
  mouse. The value of these devices does not arise from any direct =
superiority=20
  over the keyboard, but rather in the discipline they impose on the =
designer.=20
  Simple input devices go hand-in-hand with simple input structures. =
Complex=20
  input devices encourage complex input structures.</P>
  <P>The I/O structure is the most important of the three structures in =
a=20
  computer game, for it is the face of the game that the player sees. It =
is the=20
  vehicle of interaction for the game. It is also the most difficult of =
the=20
  three structures to design, demanding both human sensitivity and =
complete=20
  technical mastery of the computer. Give it the care it deserves. <FONT =

  size=3D-1><A=20
  =
href=3D"http://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/game-book/Chapter5.html#=
top">Top</A></FONT></P>
  <P><A name=3DGame></A><B>Game Structure</B></P>
  <P>The central problem in designing the game structure is figuring out =
how to=20
  distill the fantasy of the goal and topic into a workable system. The =
game=20
  designer must identify some key element from the topic environment and =
build=20
  the game around that key element. This key element must be central to =
the=20
  topic, representative or symbolic of the issues addressed in the game, =

  manipulable, and understandable. For example, in EASTERN FRONT 1941, I =
started=20
  with the enormous complexity of modern warfare and extracted a key =
element:=20
  movement. Movement dictates the dispositions of the military units. =
Moving=20
  into an enemy=92s position initiates combat with him. Moving behind =
him disrupts=20
  his supplies and blocks his retreat routs. Moving into a city captures =
it.=20
  Movement is not equitable with all aspects of war; it is, instead, the =
key=20
  element through which many other aspects of war are expressible. It is =
easily=20
  manipulable and immediately understandable.</P>
  <P>A more difficult design challenge came from the game GOSSIP. This =
game=20
  addresses social relationships. The enormous complexity of the subject =
matter=20
  and the intricate twists and turns of human interaction together =
suggest that=20
  the subject is beyond treatment in a game. After much thought I was =
able to=20
  isolate a key element: the "statement of affinity". One way or =
another, many=20
  of our social interactions boil down to one of two declarations: a=20
  first-person statement of feeling ("I rather like Sandra"), and a =
third-person=20
  statement ("Well, Tom told me that he doesn=92t like Sandra one bit"). =
The key=20
  element encapsulates the grander array of human interactions rather =
well. It=20
  is easily manipulable; indeed, it is quantifiable. And it is quite=20
  understandable. The isolation of the statement of affinity as the key =
element=20
  of human interaction made possible the game GOSSIP.</P>
  <P>The nature of manipulability assumes tremendous importance to the =
success=20
  of the game. The key element must be manipulable, but in a very =
specific set=20
  of ways. It must be expressively manipulable; that is, it must allow =
the=20
  player to express himself, to do the things that he wants or needs to =
do to=20
  experience the fantasy of the game. For example, in a combat game, =
shooting is=20
  almost always a key element. If the player=92s freedom to shoot is =
heavily=20
  restricted, the player cannot live the fantasy. At the same time, the=20
  manipulability must be concise. To use the combat game example again, =
if the=20
  player is required to declare the amount of gunpowder to be expended =
on each=20
  shot, he may well find the manipulability a hindrance to the game. The =