ch4.mht

游戏设计大师Chris Crawford的大作《The Art of Game Design》唯一不足的是英文版的

big=20
  advantage: the computer can implement complex arithmetic and logical =
rules.=20
  With other technologies, game rules must be overly simple because the =
humans=20
  implementing them cannot be trusted to perform simple numerical =
computations.=20
  The computer eliminates this restriction.</P>
  <P>For example, in the original version of EASTERN FRONT 1941, I was =
able to=20
  use exceptionally complex victory calculations. Most board-level =
wargames=20
  about the eastern front in World War II assign victory points for =
captured=20
  cities, and perhaps for casualties inflicted and sustained. A more =
complex=20
  calculation recognizing the realities of the campaign would be too =
tedious for=20
  human computation. Original EASTERN FRONT 1941 was able to calculate =
not only=20
  cities captured and casualties inflicted and sustained, but also the =
eastward=20
  progress of every German unit as well as the westward resistance of =
every=20
  Russian unit. The game is thereby able to provide a more realistic and =

  meaningful measure of the player=92s performance.</P>
  <P>The third advantage of the computer is in real-time play. Other =
game=20
  technologies must have pauses and procedural delays while =
administrative=20
  matters are dealt with. The computer is so fast that it can handle the =

  administrative matters faster than the humans can play the game. This =
makes=20
  real-time games possible. Skill-and-action games are the direct =
result. The=20
  speed of the computer also eliminates the need for turn-sequencing so =
common=20
  in card games and boardgames.</P>
  <P>The fourth strength of computers for game design purposes is their =
ability=20
  to provide an intelligent opponent. All other games require a human =
opponent=20
  (exception: solitaire card games, but they are actually puzzles rather =
than=20
  games). The greatest success so far has been with chess-playing games. =

  Programs written for microcomputers can now play a chess game well =
enough to=20
  challenge most non-rated players. These games represent the best we =
have=20
  achieved to date in game artificial intelligence. Most games are far =
less=20
  intelligent. Instead, they rely on overwhelming numerical advantage to =
make up=20
  for the superior intelligence of the human player. With the passage of =
time,=20
  we can expect to see more intelligent algorithms that provide more =
challenging=20
  play from the computer.</P>
  <P>The fifth strength of the computer is its ability to limit the =
information=20
  given to the players in a purposeful way. This capability can be of =
great=20
  value. Limited information forces the player to use guesswork. The =
nature of=20
  this guesswork can be very intriguing. For example, guessing a random =
number=20
  between one and ten is not a very interesting challenge, but guessing =
your=20
  opponent=92s resources based on your assessment of his actions and =
personality is=20
  a far more interesting exercise. When the guesswork is included in the =

  framework of a complex and only partially known system, the challenge =
facing=20
  the human player takes on a decidedly real-life texture.</P>
  <P>Limited information provides another important bonus. Games are an =
unreal=20
  representation of a real-world problem. The player must use his =
imagination to=20
  make the unreal situation seem real. Limited information encourages =
the use of=20
  imagination. If we know all the pertinent facts, we can treat the =
problem as a=20
  simple problem of deduction. But if we know only a portion of the =
truth, our=20
  minds grope for an appropriate model on which to hang our projections. =
What=20
  model could be more appropriate than the reality that the game =
attempts to=20
  re-create? We are therefore forced by lack of information to imagine =
ourselves=20
  in the real-world predicament postulated by the game so that tie may =
deal with=20
  the problems imposed by the game. In the process, the illusion of =
reality is=20
  heightened. The game draws us into its fantasy world more =
effectively.</P>
  <P>The sixth feature offered by computers is their ability to utilize =
data=20
  transfer over telephone lines for game play. The use of =
telecommunications for=20
  game play makes possible game structures that are out of the reach of =
other=20
  technologies. It allows us to create games with huge numbers of =
players. Until=20
  now, administrative problems have made it necessary to limit the =
number of=20
  players in any game. Six players is a rough upper limit for a =
non-refereed=20
  game; twelve players will require several referees and twenty players =
or more=20
  will require many referees. Obviously, games with hundreds of players =
will=20
  face many administrative problems. Indeed, the logistic problems of =
assembling=20
  all th players are themselves prohibitive. All these problems are =
solved by=20
  computers linked through a telecommunications network. With this =
technology it=20
  should be possible to design games knitting together thousands of =
players=20
  scattered all over the continent. Players could drift into and out of =
the game=20
  at their whim; with large numbers of players the coming and going of=20
  individuals will not be detrimental to the game.</P>
  <P>Like any technology, computers have weaknesses as well as =
strengths. The=20
  first and most painful weakness is the limited I/O capability of most=20
  computers. The computer itself may be supremely responsive, but if the =
human=20
  player can=92t tell it what he wants, or fails to understand the =
computer=92s=20
  response, the computer=92s effective responsiveness is nil. In other =
words, the=20
  computer must communicate its responsiveness to the human; it does so =
through=20
  I/O. Most output is through graphics and sound; most input is through=20
  keyboard, joystick, and paddle.</P>
  <P>Graphics are the first component of output. Good graphics are hard =
to come=20
  by. Even the Atari Home Computer System, boasting the best graphics in =
the=20
  microcomputer world, has graphics limitations that severely constrain =
the game=20
  designer. You simply cannot show all the graphic details that you =
would like=20
  to show. For example, I suspect that few boardgame boards could be =
duplicated=20
  on a single screen by this machine. The number of colors, the mixing =
of text=20
  with high-resolution graphics, and the size of the board all combine =
to make=20
  the task hopeless. It is possible to use a variety of tricks to =
produce=20
  something that is functionally similar to any given game board. We =
could=20
  reduce the number of colors displayed, we could dispense with text, =
and we=20
  could design an oversize display through which the user must scroll. =
EASTERN=20
  FRONT 1941 uses all of these tricks, and the result is quite usable, =
but the=20
  game wends a tortuous path past the graphics constraints of the =
computer.</P>
  <P>Of course, the computer also boasts some graphics advantages. I =
have yet to=20
  see the boardgame that could show animation or change itself around =
the way a=20
  computer game could. These sensory features can dramatically increase =
the=20
  impact of any game. So the graphics picture is not all bad.</P>
  <P>Another I/O restriction comes from the input requirements. Input to =
the=20
  computer must come in through the keyboard or the controllers. This =
can make=20
  things very difficult for the game designer. In the first place, you =
can=92t say=20
  much with a joystick or keyboard. A joystick can say only five =
fundamental=20
  words: "up", "down", "right", "left", and "button". A keyboard can say =
more,=20
  but only through a lengthy and error-prone sequence of key presses. =
The human=20
  who wishes to express a meaningful communication to the computer must=20
  successfully enter a long and clumsy string of simple commands. Input =
is made=20
  even more difficult by the indirectness of keyboards and joysticks. =
There is=20
  very little about such devices that directly corresponds to real-world =

  activities. Actions that are simple and obvious with other =
technologies become=20
  arcane with the computer. If I give you a bat and tell you that your =
goal in=20
  baseball is to hit the ball, you will have few problems deciding that =
you=20
  should swing the bat at the ball. A computer baseball game is not so =
easy to=20
  figure out. Do you press H for "hit" or S for "swing" or B for "bat"? =
Do you=20
  press the START key or press the joystick trigger? Perhaps you should =
swing=20
  the joystick by its cable at the ball displayed on the television =
screen.</P>
  <P>After I/O, the second weakness of the personal computer is its =
single-user=20
  orientation. These machines were designed for one person to use while =
a seated=20
  at a desk. If two people are to use it, they may be forced to exchange =
seats,=20
  a clumsy and distracting procedure. With joysticks or paddle =
controllers the=20
  problem is diminished but not eliminated. This is one reason why so =
many=20
  computer games are solitaire and has led to the accusation that =
computer games=20
  are anti-social. A boardgame invites a group of people to sit around =
the=20
  table. A computer game encourages one player, accepts two, and =
discourages=20
  more.</P>
  <P>The final weakness of the computer to be considered here is the =
requirement=20
  that it=92s programmed. No other game technology imposes so harsh a =
demand on the=20
  game designer. The boardgame designer can sketch an adequate board and =

  construct some simple playing pieces that will serve quite =
effectively. When=20
  the time comes to produce the game, the designer=92s amateur efforts =
can be=20
  handed to a professional who can produce a quality version of the =
prototypes=20
  made by the designer. For this reason the designer need not concern =
himself=20
  with the technical aspects of game production.</P>
  <P>The computer game designer does not have life so easy. The design =
must be=20
  implemented on the computer by programming it. Programming itself is a =
tedious=20
  and difficult process, and it is not easily delegated, for the =
programming=20
  effort exerts a major influence over the design process. Implementing =
a design=20
  well is a major hurdle for any computer game designer. <FONT =
size=3D-1><A=20
  =
href=3D"http://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/game-book/Chapter4.html#=
top">Top</A>=20
  </FONT></P>
  <P><A name=3D"DESIGN PRECEPTS FOR COMPUTER"></A><B>DESIGN PRECEPTS FOR =
COMPUTER=20
  GAMES</B></P>
  <P>How do we translate an understanding of these strengths and =
weaknesses of=20
  the computer into a set of guidelines for game designers? The =
characteristics=20
  described above imply a variety of precepts. <FONT size=3D-1><A=20
  =
href=3D"http://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/game-book/Chapter4.html#=
top">Top</A>=20
  </FONT></P>
  <P><A name=3D"PRECEPT #1: GO WITH THE"></A><B>PRECEPT #1: GO WITH THE=20
  GRAIN</B></P>
  <P>(Introducing our idiot cartoon hero. A rocket lies on its side. A=20
  wheel-less baby carriage lies nearby. Our hero is walking from the =
baby=20
  carriage toward the rocket, carrying some baby carriage wheels and a=20
  hammer.)</P>
  <P>The first-precept can be summarized with the aphorism: "Work with =
the grain=20
  of the machine, not against it." Too many game designers set out with=20
  unrealistic goals. They attempt to force the machine to perform tasks =
for=20
  which it is not well-suited. In saying this, I do not excuse lazy =
programming.=20
  We must remember that the computer is the servant of the human; the=20
  convenience of the computer is not of interest to the designer. Our =
goal is to=20
  extract maximum performance from the computer, to make it work its =
best. We=20
  can only do this by making it perform functions which it performs =
well. <FONT=20
  size=3D-1><A=20
  =
href=3D"http://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/game-book/Chapter4.html#=
top">Top</A>=20
  </FONT></P>
  <P><B>Case In Point: Hexgrids</B></P>
  <P>An example of this principle might be illuminating. Board wargames =
are=20
  traditionally executed on maps that use a hexgrid system. This =
regularizes=20
  movement and defines positions.</P>
  <P>Hexgrids are preferred over rectgrids for several reasons. First, =
rectgrids=20
  have diagonals; two units can be diagonally adjacent. This situation =
can be=20
  very messy; rules to cope with it are always burdensome and confusing. =

  Hexgrids have no diagonals, so they eliminate the problem. Second, =
hexgrids=20
  allow a player a choice of six directions in which to move, while =
rectgrids=20
  offer only four directions. The greater range of choice allows the =
player to=20
  control more finely the movements and positioning of his pieces.</P>
  <P>It therefore seems natural that designers of computer wargames =
would also=20