ch1.mht

游戏设计大师Chris Crawford的大作《The Art of Game Design》唯一不足的是英文版的

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<P><A name=3DCOMPUTER></A><B>COMPUTER GAMES</B></P>
<UL>
  <P>The next area of gaming we shall glance at is the current fad in =
gaming and=20
  the subject of this book, the computer game. These games are played on =
five=20
  types of computers: expensive dedicated machines for the arcades =
(=93coin=20
  op?machines), inexpensive dedicated machines (=93hand helds?, multi =
program home=20
  games, machines such as the ATARI 2600 and the ATARI 5200, personal =
computers,=20
  and large mainframe computers. The computer acts as opponent and =
referee in=20
  most of these games; in many of them it also provides animated =
graphics. The=20
  most common form of computer game is the skill and action (=93S&amp;A? =
game=20
  emphasizing hand eye coordination. These S&amp;A games are frequently =
violent=20
  in nature. There are many other areas of computer gaming: adventure =
games,=20
  fantasy role playing games, and war games. In our cursory overview, =
these=20
  other computer games are eclipsed by the sheer volume of the skill and =
action=20
  games.</P>
  <P>This concludes our quick survey of the most prominent groupings in =
the=20
  universe of games. We shall return to the subject later, to create a =
taxonomy=20
  of computer games, and later still to draw on specific examples of =
games to=20
  make points about their nature. We must now address the question which =

  motivated our initial reconnaissance: what are the fundamental =
elements common=20
  to these games? I perceive four common factors: representation, =
interaction,=20
  conflict, and safety. <FONT size=3D-1><A=20
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<P><A name=3DREPRESENTATION></A><B>REPRESENTATION</B></P>
<UL>
  <P>First, a game is a closed formal system that subjectively =
represents a=20
  subset of reality. Let us examine each term of this statement =
carefully. By=20
  'closed' I mean that the game is complete and self sufficient as a =
structure.=20
  The model world created by the game is internally complete; no =
reference need=20
  be made to agents outside of the game. Some badly designed games fail =
to meet=20
  this requirement. Such games produce disputes over the rules, for they =
allow=20
  situations to develop that the rules do not address. The players must =
then=20
  extend the rules to cover the situation in which they find themselves. =
This=20
  situation always produces arguments. A properly designed game =
precludes this=20
  possibility; it is closed because the rules cover all contingencies=20
  encountered in the game.</P>
  <P><B>Formal</B></P>
  <P>By formal I mean only that the game has explicit rules. There are =
informal=20
  games in which the rules are loosely stated or deliberately vague. =
Such games=20
  are far removed from the mainstream of game play.</P>
  <P><B>System</B></P>
  <P>The term 'system' is often misused, but in this case its =
application is=20
  quite appropriate. A game=92s collection of parts which interact with =
each other,=20
  often in complex ways. It is a system.</P>
  <P><B>Subjectively Represents</B></P>
  <P>Representation is a coin with two faces: an objective face and a =
subjective=20
  face. The two faces are not mutually exclusive, for the subjective =
reality=20
  springs from and feeds on objective reality. In a game, these two =
faces are=20
  intertwined, with emphasis on the subjective face. For example, when a =
player=20
  blasts hundreds of alien invaders, nobody believes that his recreation =

  directly mirrors the objective world. However, the game may be a very =
real=20
  metaphor for the player=92s perception of his world. I do not wish to =
sully my=20
  arguments with pop psychological analyses of players giving vent to =
deep=20
  seated aggressions at the arcades. Clearly, though, <B>something =
</B>more than=20
  a simple blasting of alien monsters is going on in the mind of the =
player. We=20
  need not concern ourselves with its exact nature; for the moment it is =

  entirely adequate to realize that the player does perceive the game to =

  represent something from his private fantasy world. Thus, a game =
represents=20
  something from subjective reality, not objective. Games are =
objectively unreal=20
  in that they do not physically re create the situations they =
represent, yet=20
  they are subjectively real to the player. The agent that transforms an =

  objectively unreal situation into a subjectively real one is human =
fantasy.=20
  Fantasy thus plays a vital role in any game situation. A game creates =
a=20
  fantasy representation, not a scientific model.</P>
  <P><B>Games versus Simulations</B></P>
  <P>The distinction between objective representation and subjective=20
  representation is made clear by a consideration of the differences =
between=20
  simulations and games. A simulation is a serious attempt to accurately =

  represent a real phenomenon in another, more malleable form. A game is =
an=20
  artistically simplified representation of a phenomenon. The =
simulations=20
  designer simplifies reluctantly and only as a concession to material =
and=20
  intellectual limitations. The game designer simplifies deliberately in =
order=20
  to focus the player=92s attention on those factors the designer judges =
to be=20
  important. The fundamental difference between the two lies in their =
purposes.=20
  A simulation is created for computational or evaluative purposes; a =
game is=20
  created for educational or entertainment purposes.(There is a middle =
ground=20
  where training simulations blend into educational games.) Accuracy is =
the sine=20
  qua non of simulations; clarity the sine qua non of games. A =
simulation bears=20
  the same relationship to a game that a technical drawing bears to a =
painting.=20
  A game is not merely a small simulation lacking the degree of detail =
that a=20
  simulation possesses; a game deliberately suppresses detail to =
accentuate the=20
  broader message that the designer wishes to present. Where a =
simulation is=20
  detailed a game is stylized.</P>
  <P>Consider, for example, the differences between a flight simulator =
program=20
  for a personal computer and the coin op game RED BARON? Both programs =
concern=20
  flying an airplane; both operate on microcomputer systems. The flight=20
  simulator demonstrates many of the technical aspects of flying: =
stalls, rolls,=20
  and spins, for example RED BARON has none of these. Indeed, the =
aircraft that=20
  the player files in RED BARON is quite unrealistic. It cannot be =
stalled,=20
  rolled, spun, or dived into the ground. When the stick is released it=20
  automatically rights itself. It is incorrect to conclude from these=20
  observations that RED BARON is inferior to the flight simulator. RED =
BARON is=20
  not a game about realistic flying; it is a game about flying and =
shooting and=20
  avoiding being shot. The inclusion of technical details of flying =
would=20
  distract most players from the other aspects of the game. The =
designers of RED=20
  BARON quite correctly stripped out technical details of flight to =
focus the=20
  player=92s attention on the combat aspects of the game. The absence of =
these=20
  technical details from RED BARON is not a liability but an asset, for =
it=20
  provides focus to the game. Their absence from a flight simulator =
would be a=20
  liability.</P>
  <P><B>Subset of Reality</B></P>
  <P>The last term I use is =93subset of reality.?One aspect of this =
term (=93subset?=20
  is easily justified. Clearly, no game could include all of reality =
without=20
  being reality itself; thus, a game must be at most a subset of =
reality. The=20
  choice of matter in the subset is the means of providing focus to the =
game. A=20
  game that represents too large a subset of reality defies the =
player=92s=20
  comprehension and becomes almost indistinguishable from life itself, =
robbing=20
  the game of one of its most appealing factors, its focus.</P>
  <P><B>Summary of Representation</B></P>
  <P>A game creates a subjective and deliberately simplified =
representation of=20
  emotional reality. A game is not an objectively accurate =
representation of=20
  reality; objective accuracy is only necessary to the extent required =
to=20
  support the player=92s fantasy. The player=92s fantasy is the key =
agent in making=20
  the game psychologically real. <FONT size=3D-1><A=20
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<P><A name=3DINTERACTION></A><B>INTERACTION</B></P>
<UL>
  <P>Some media for representing reality are static. A painting or =
sculpture=20
  depicts a snapshot of reality frozen in time. Some media are dynamic; =
they=20
  show change with time. Movies, music, and dance are dynamic in this =
way. They=20
  are able to represent the changing aspect of reality more richly. But =
the most=20
  fascinating thing about reality is not that it is, or even that it =
changes,=20
  but <B>how</B> it changes, the intricate webwork of cause and effect =
by which=20
  all things are tied together. The only way to properly represent this =
webwork=20
  is to allow the audience to explore its nooks and crannies to let them =

  generate causes and observe effects. Thus, the highest and most =
complete form=20
  of representation is interactive representation. Games provide this=20
  interactive element, and it is a crucial factor in their appeal.</P>
  <P><B>Games versus Puzzles</B></P>
  <P>One way to understand the nature of the interactive element of =
games is to=20
  contrast games with puzzles and other non interactive challenges. =
Compare=20
  playing a cube puzzle with playing a game of tic tac toe. Compare the =
sport of=20
  high jumping with the game of basketball. In each comparison the two=20
  activities provide similar challenges to the player. The key =
difference that=20
  makes one activity a game and the other activity not a game is the =
interactive=20
  element. A cube puzzle does not actively respond to the human=92s =
moves; a high=20
  jump pole does not react to the jumper=92s efforts. In both tic tac =
toe and=20
  basketball the opposing players acknowledge and respond to the =
player=92s=20
  actions.</P>
  <P>The difference between games and puzzles has little to do with the=20
  mechanics of the situation; we can easily turn many puzzles and =
athletic=20
  challenges into games and vice versa. For example, chess, a game, has =
spawned=20
  a whole class of puzzles, the end game problems. Games can include =
puzzles as=20
  subsets, and many do. Most of the time the puzzles are a minor =
component of=20
  the overall game, for a game that puts most of its challenge value on =
included=20
  puzzles will rapidly lose its challenge once the puzzles have been =