rfc871.txt

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     administratively intractable "n x m problem."  So the notion of
     creating a "virtual terminal" arose, probably by analogy to
     "virtual memory" in the sense of something that "wasn't really
     there" but could be used as if it






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     RFC 871                                            September 1982


     were; that is, a common intermediate representation (CIR) of
     terminal characteristics was defined in order to allow the Host
     to which a terminal was physically attached to map the particular
     characteristics of the terminal into a CIR, so that the Host
     being logged into, knowing the CIR as part of the relevant
     protocol, could map out of it into a form already acceptable to
     the native operating system.  And when it came time to develop a
     File Transfer Protocol, the same virtualizing or CIR trick was
     clearly just as useful as for a terminal oriented protocol, so
     virtualizing became part of the axiom set too.

          The NWG, then, at least pioneered and probably invented the
     notion of doing intercomputer networking/resource sharing via
     hierarchical, layered protocols for interprocess communication
     over logical connections of common intermediate representations/
     virtualizations.  Meanwhile, outside of the ARPA research
     community, "the ARPANET" was perceived to be a major
     technological advance. "Networking" became the "in" thing.  And
     along with popular success came the call for standards; in
     particular, standards based on a widely-publicized "Reference
     Model for Open System Interconnection" promulgated by the
     International Standards Organization.  Not too surprisingly, Open
     System Interconnection looks a lot like resource sharing, the
     ISORM posits a layered protocol hierarchy, "connections" occur
     frequently, and emerging higher level protocols tend to
     virtualize; after all, one expects standards to reflect the state
     of the art in question.  But even if the ISORM, suitably refined,
     does prove to be the wave of the future, this author feels that
     the ARM is by no means a whitecap, and deserves explication--both
     in its role as the ISORM's "roots" and as the basis of a
     still-viable alternative protocol suite.

                              Axiomatization

          Let's begin with the axioms of the ARPANET Reference Model.
     Indeed, let's begin by recalling what an axiom is, in common
     usage: a principle the truth of which is deemed self-evident.
     Given that definition, it's not too surprising that axioms rarely
     get stated or examined in non-mathematical discourse.  It turns
     out, however, that the axiomatization of the ARM--as best we can
     recall and reconstruct it--is not only germane to the enunciation
     of the ARM, but is also a source of instructive contrasts with
     our view of the axiomatization of the ISORM.  (See [1] again.)

     Resource Sharing

          The fundamental axiom of the ARM is that intercomputer
     networking protocols (as distinct from communications network







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     RFC 871                                            September 1982


     protocols) are to enable heterogeneous computer operating systems
     ("Hosts") to achieve resource sharing.  Indeed, the session at
     the 1970 SJCC in which the ARPANET entered the open literature
     was entitled "Resource Sharing Computer Networks".

          Of course, as self-evident truths, axioms rarely receive
     much scrutiny.  Just what resource sharing is isn't easy to pin
     down--nor, for that matter, is just what Open System
     Interconnection is. But it must have something to do with the
     ability of the programs and data of the several Hosts to be used
     by and with programs and data on other of the Hosts in some sort
     of cooperative fashion.  It must, that is, confer more
     functionality upon the human user than merely the ability to log
     in/on to a Host miles away ("remote access").

          A striking property of this axiom is that it renders
     protocol suites such as "X.25"/"X.28"/ "X.29" rather
     uninteresting for our purposes, for they appear to have as their
     fundamental axiom the ability to achieve remote access only.  (It
     might even be a valid rule of thumb that any "network" which
     physically interfaces to Hosts via devices that resemble milking
     machines--that is, which attach as if they were just a group of
     locally-known types of terminals--isn't a resource sharing
     network.)

          Reference [3] addresses the resource sharing vs. remote
     access topic in more detail.

     Interprocess Communication

          The second axiom of the ARM is that resource sharing will be
     achieved via an interprocess communication mechanism of some
     sort.  Again, the concept isn't particularly well-defined in the
     "networking" literature.  Here, however, there's some
     justification, for the concept is fairly well known in the
     Operating Systems branch of the Computer Science literature,
     which was the field most of the NWG members came from.
     Unfortunately, because intercomputer networking involves
     communications devices of several sorts, many whose primary field
     is Communications became involved with "networking" but were not
     in a position to appreciate the implications of the axiom.

          A process may be viewed as the active element of a Host, or
     as an address space in execution, or as a "job", or as a "task",
     or as a "control point"--or, actually, as any one (or more) of at
     least 29 definitions from at least 28 reputable computer
     scientists.  What's important for present purposes isn't the
     precise definition (even if there were one), but the fact that
     the axiom's presence dictates the absence of at least one other
     axiom at the same level of





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     RFC 871                                            September 1982


     abstraction.  That is, we might have chosen to attempt to achieve
     resource sharing through an explicitly interprocedure
     communication oriented mechanism of some sort--wherein the
     entities being enabled to communicate were subroutines, or pieces
     of address spaces--but we didn't.  Whether this was because
     somebody realized that you could do interprocedure communication
     (or achieve a "virtual address space" or "distributed operating
     system" or some such formulation) on top of an interprocess
     communication mechanism (IPC), or whether "it just seemed
     obvious" to do IPC doesn't matter very much.  What matters is
     that the axiom was chosen, assumes a fair degree of familiarity
     with Operating Systems, doesn't assume extremely close coupling
     of Hosts, and has led to a working protocol suite which does
     achieve resource sharing--and certainly does appear to be an
     axiom the ISORM tacitly accepted, along with resource sharing.

     Logical Connections

          The next axiom has to do with whether and how to demultiplex
     IPC "channels", "routes", "paths", "ports", or "sockets".  That
     is, if you're doing interprocess communication (IPC), you still
     have to decide whether a process can communicate with more than
     one other process, and, if so, how to distinguish between the bit
     streams. (Indeed, even choosing streams rather than blocks is a
     decision.) Although it isn't treated particularly explicitly in
     the literature, it seems clear that the ARM axiom is to do IPC
     over logical connections, in the following sense:  Just as batch
     oriented operating systems found it useful to allow processes
     (usually thought of as jobs--or even "programs") to be insulated
     from the details of which particular physical tape drives were
     working well enough at a particular moment to spin the System
     Input and Output reels, and created the view that a reference to
     a "logical tape number" would always get to the right physical
     drive for the defined purpose, so too the ARM's IPC mechanism
     creates logical connections between processes.  That is, the IPC
     addressing mechanism has semantics as well as syntax.

          "Socket" n on any participating Host will be defined as the
     "Well-Known Socket" (W-KS) where a particular service (as
     mechanized by a program which follows, or "interprets", a
     particular  protocol [4]) is found.  (Note that the W-KS is
     defined for the "side" of a connection where a given service
     resides; the user side will, in  order to be able to demultiplex
     its network-using processes, of course assign different numbers
     to its "sides" of connections to a given W-KS.  Also, the serving
     side takes cognizance of the using side's Host designation as
     well as the proferred socket, so it too can demultiplex.)
     Clearly, you want free sockets as well as Well-Known ones, and we
     have them.  Indeed, at each level of the ARM






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     RFC 871                                            September 1982


     hierarchy the addressing entities are divided into assigned and
     unassigned sets, and the distinction has proven to be quite
     useful to networking researchers in that it confers upon them the
     ability to experiment with new functions without interfering with
     running mechanisms.

          On this axiom, the ISORM differs from the ARM.  ISORM
     "peer-peer" connections (or "associations") appear to be used
     only for demultiplexing, with the number assigned by the receive
     side rather than the send side.  That is, a separate protocol is
     intro- duced to establish that a particular "transport"
     connection will be used in the present "session" for some
     particular service.  At the risk of editorializing, logical
     connections seem much cleaner than "virtual" connections (using
     virtual in the sense of something that "isn't really there" but
     can be used as if it were, by analogy to virtual memory, as noted
     above, and in deference to the X.25 term "virtual circuit", which
     appears to have dictated the receiver-assigned posture the ISORM
     takes at its higher levels.) Although the ISORM view "works", the
     W-KS approach avoids the introduction of an extra protocol.

     Layering

          The next axiom is perhaps the best-known, and almost
     certainly the worst-understood.  As best we can reconstruct
     things, the NWG was much taken with the Computer Science buzzword
     of the times, "modularity".  "Everybody knew" modularity was a
     Good Thing.  In addition, we were given a head start because the
     IMP's weren't under our direct control anyway, but could possibly
     change at some future date, and we didn't want to be "locked in"
     to the then-current IMP-Host protocol.  So it was enunciated that
     protocols which were to be members of the ARM suite (ARMS, for
     future reference, although at the time nobody used "ARM", much
     less "ARMS") were to be layered.  It was widely agreed that this
     meant a given protocol's control information (i.e., the control
     information exchanged by counterpart protocol interpreters, or
     "peer entities" in ISORM terms) should be treated strictly as
     data by a protocol "below" it, so that you could invoke a
     protocol interpreter (PI) through a known interface, but if
     either protocol changed there would not be any dependencies in
     the other on the former details of the one, and as long as the
     interface didn't change you wouldn't have to change the PI of the
     protocol which hadn't changed.

          All well and good, if somewhat cryptic.  The important point
     for present purposes, however, isn't a seemingly-rigorous
     definition of Layering, but an appreciation of what the axiom
     meant in the evolution of the ARM.  What it meant was that we
     tried to come up






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     RFC 871                                            September 1982


     with protocols that represented reasonable "packagings" of
     functionality.  For reasons that are probably unknowable, but
     about which some conjectures will be offered subsequently, the
     ARM and the ISORM agree strongly on the presence of Layering in
     their respective axiomatizations but differ strikingly as to what
     packagings of functionality are considered appropriate.  To
     anticipate a bit, the ARM concerns itself with three layers and
     only one of them is mandatorily traversed;  whereas the ISORM,
     again as everybody knows, has, because of emerging "sub-layers",
     what must be viewed as at least seven layers, and many who have
     studied it believe that all of the layers must be traversed on
     each transmission/reception of data.

          Perhaps the most significant point of all about Layering is
     that the most frequently-voiced charge at NWG protocol committee
     design meetings was, "That violates Layering!" even though nobody
     had an appreciably-clearer view of what Layering meant than has
     been presented here, yet the ARMS exists.  We can only guess what
     goes on in the design meetings for protocols to become members of
     the ISORM suite (ISORMS), but it doesn't seem likely that having
     more layers could possibly decrease the number of arguments....

          Indeed, it's probably fair to say that the ARM view of
     Layering is to treat layers as quite broad functional groupings